Euphoria what is it

Euphoria

Euphoria (semantically opposite of dysphoria) is medically recognized as a mental and emotional condition in which a person experiences intense feelings of well-being, elation, happiness, excitement and joy. [1] In the context of drug use, however, it can be split into two distinct states. These are listed below:

Contents

Physical euphoria

Physical euphoria can be described as feelings of pleasure and comfort within and across the body. This euphoria typically feels somewhat comparable to the endorphine rushes felt during states of excitement or love, the coziness of a comfortable bed, and the rush of an orgasm. The forcefulness of this effect can range from subtle in its strength to overwhelmingly pleasurable beyond even the most intense full body orgasm possible.

Physical euphoria is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as cognitive euphoria and muscle relaxation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of a wide variety of compounds, such as opioids, stimulants, and GABAergics. However, it can also occur in a more powerful although less consistent form under the influence of psychedelics and dissociatives.

Cognitive euphoria

Cognitive euphoria (semantically the opposite of cognitive dysphoria) is medically recognized as a cognitive and emotional state in which a person experiences intense feelings of well-being, elation, happiness, excitement, and joy. [2] Although euphoria is an effect (i.e. a substance is euphorigenic), [3] [4] the term is also used colloquially to define a state of transcendent happiness combined with an intense sense of contentment. [5] However, recent psychological research suggests euphoria can largely contribute to but should not be equated with happiness. [6]

Cognitive euphoria is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as physical euphoria and tactile enhancement. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of opioids, entactogens, stimulants, and GABAergic depressants. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of hallucinogenic compounds such as psychedelics, dissociatives, and cannabinoids.

What is Euphoria?

Euphoria is a challenging concept to define. People who are euphoric are elated, joyful, happy, and their feelings may or may not relate to their circumstances. There are many folks who have momentarily slipped into a euphoric state when they’ve receive great news, when they’re in love, if they’re in the midst of a transformational religious experience, or directly after certain activities like intercourse or childbirth. As much as these states are common and enviable, there are also some times when euphoria suggests illness, drug use or abuse or drug or substance poisoning. A euphoric state could be followed by a huge come down, extreme or protracted illness, and death, or the state could be maintained and indicate presence of some forms of illness.

The three principal medical causes are intoxication, poisoning and specific types of mental illness, especially schizophrenia and manic or hypomanic states in bipolar disorder. Sometimes other medical conditions may be indicated in this state including Alzheimer’s disease.

Clearly intoxication on alcohol may cause euphoria in some people. The term “happy drunk” can apply to those people who feel grand and elated when they’ve consumed enough alcohol. It’s almost unfortunate that this feeling can be arrived at with many types of drug or alcohol use, since returning to that elated state may be more desirable than the alternative. This is perhaps one reason why drugs like cocaine create addiction so easily. Many people using them do find themselves in a euphoric state and want to return to it.

Obviously, judgment becomes exceptionally poor for people in an increasingly unrealistic state of euphoria and this could easily lead to overdose or overuse of drugs to maintain the state, or because it comes from a sense that the person is somehow impervious to harm at that point. There are many drug overdoses that briefly place people in a euphoric state, and exposure to certain dangerous chemicals like pesticides can have similar effects. Perhaps one of the most potentially harmful ways to try to achieve this state is through inhibiting breathing either inside or outside of a sexual context. Though hypoxia does result in brief euphoria, it has also clearly caused the accidental deaths of many, and is extremely dangerous to attempt to induce.

In mental illness, some schizophrenics may enter euphoria particularly if they have delusions of grandeur. Clearly they’re very ill at these times, and the state has nothing to do with their precise circumstances. Similarly, those with bipolar disorder can, when in a manic state, feel overjoyed, productive, positive and extremely happy, but this thinking is generally delusional and does not take into account the state of the person’s needs or life requirements.

A few others conditions have occasionally been associated with a euphoric state. These include age-related dementia and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), although the latter is rare. Should people be concerned about a loved one’s behavior that seems to be too euphoric, talking to a family doctor is a good place to start. However it may be hard to get someone in this state to see a doctor, since most will be convinced there is no need to do so.

Tricia has a Literature degree from Sonoma State University and has been a frequent contributor for many years. She is especially passionate about reading and writing, although her other interests include medicine, art, film, history, politics, ethics, and religion. Tricia lives in Northern California and is currently working on her first novel.

Tricia has a Literature degree from Sonoma State University and has been a frequent contributor for many years. She is especially passionate about reading and writing, although her other interests include medicine, art, film, history, politics, ethics, and religion. Tricia lives in Northern California and is currently working on her first novel.

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Discussion Comments

I remember when I was a young teen, I belonged to a fringe church that would have long prayer sessions at the altar. We were supposed to pray until the Holy Spirit took control of our minds, then we’d experience euphoria. I think I reached that state once or twice, but there were believers around me who could reach a point of pure joy and happiness during every prayer session. They would start speaking in a language that sounded a little like Aramaic to me.

I never understood what true euphoria was until a doctor gave me an injection of the painkiller Demerol. Demerol doesn’t really change the origin of the pain as much as it changes your perception of the pain. In other words, once the shot kicks in, you travel to another universe where pain doesn’t exist. I was truly blissed out and euphoric, but I still had to answer the hospital receptionist’s questions. What was my name? Batman. Where did I live? Gotham City. I stayed in that state of mind for hours.

Эйфория (Euphoria)

Смотреть что такое «Эйфория (Euphoria)» в других словарях:

эйфория — (от греч. eyphoria) повышенное радостное, веселое настроение, состояние благодушия и беспечности, не соответствующее объективным обстоятельствам, при к ром наблюдается мимическое и общее двигательное оживление, психомоторное возбуждение. Краткий… … Большая психологическая энциклопедия

ЭЙФОРИЯ — [гр. euphoria Словарь иностранных слов русского языка

Euphoria (анимация) — euphoria Тип Процедурная анимация[1] Разработчик … Википедия

Euphoria (движок) — euphoria Engine Тип Анимационный движок[1] Разработчик ОС PC[неоднозначно], Playstation 3, Xbox 360 Лицензия Проприетарное программное обеспечение Сайт … Википедия

Euphoria — Euphoria: Euphoria (альбом) альбом Энрике Иглесиаса. Euphoria (анимация) компьютерная программа для создания процедурной анимации. Euphoria (язык программирования) интерпретируемый процедурный язык программирования. Euphoria… … Википедия

ЭЙФОРИЯ — (от греч. euphoria возбуждение) англ. euphoria; euphory; нем. Euphorie. Не оправданное объективным состоянием человека повышенно благодушно радостное настроение; наблюдается при токсических поражениях головного мозга, органических заболеваниях… … Энциклопедия социологии

ЭЙФОРИЯ — (euphoria) состояние оптимизма, бодрости и благополучия. Преувеличенная эйфория характерна для мании и гипомании. См. также Экстаз, Эйфория (elation) … Толковый словарь по медицине

ЭЙФОРИЯ — (греческое euphoria), состояние приподнятого настроения, довольства, не соответствующее объективным условиям … Современная энциклопедия

ЭЙФОРИЯ — (греч. euphoria) состояние приподнятого настроения, довольства, не соответствующее объективным условиям … Большой Энциклопедический словарь

Euphoria

Euphoria is the effect desired by inhalant abusers, who expose themselves to high levels of toluene, often by inhaling vapors from a rag soaked in the solvent or from a paper bag into which paint or another solvent-based aerosol product has been sprayed.

Related terms:

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Treatment with Emotions in Classical Texts

Substance Abuse

Clinical Syndromes

Because of the predominance of crack cocaine, adverse reactions are no longer rare. Cocaine produces a dose-dependent sequence of effects: euphoria →dysphoria→paranoid psychosis→delirium.

Intoxication

Cocaine Psychosis/Delusional Paranoid Disorder

Cocaine and amphetamine mimic functional paranoid psychoses more closely than do any other drugs. Indeed, some individuals appear to kindle a chronic paranoid state that persists months or years into abstinence. Visual hallucinations are uncommon in primary psychiatric disorders, but micropsia and other hallucinations occur with cocaine. Tactile hallucinations, almost unheard of in psychiatric disorders, are common, usually in the form of formication or parasitosis experiences of microscopic creatures crawling on the skin (coke bugs). The most common symptom is a paranoid though disorder indistinguishable from schizophrenia. Behaviors sometimes include stereotyped, compulsive picking, organizing, and arranging behaviors. The sensorium is generally clear unless there is a large overdose or very severe toxic psychosis.

Cocaine Toxicity

Very high dose ingestions, such as those suffered by smugglers who have ingested condoms filled with cocaine, produce CNS stimulation progressing to preconvulsive movements, convulsions, and cardiovascular and respiratory failure. In some urban emergency rooms, it is a truism to rule out cocaine in any individual younger than age 40 who presents with a myocardial or cerebral infarction. These events are relatively rare and unpredictable in ordinary users.

Withdrawal

The Cell Phone in the Twenty-First Century

What Makes Cell Phone Use So Gratifying?

One of the factors determining the capacity of a substance to create addiction is its gratifying properties. It is accepted that the more intense the positive reinforcement, and the shorter the delay between consumption and physiological response, the greater is the capacity of a substance to produce addiction. So, let us analyze the positive reinforcement properties of cell phone use.

Euphoria

Euphoria from cell phone use appears to be at least as strongly related to message emission (calling or sending someone a message) as reception is to being feeling valued or loved when calls or messages are received.

Instrument

A cell phone may at the same time serve as pocket watch, alarm clock, digital camera, sound and/or video recorder, electronic diary, video console, radio, mp3 player, or Global Positioning System (GPS). It is a multifunction instrument with many utilities adapted to the age and social role of its owner.

Symbol of Identity

Cell phones have become one more element among the intimate components which constitute the personal sphere (just as other things do, such as a wristwatch, wallet, photos, key ring, etc.) with which the bearer has an emotional bond. Never before has a technological apparatus come to have such importance in so many people’s daily lives, so essential to revealing identity.

The degree of personalization possible with a cell phone is one of the factors favoring expression of individual identity, particularly among younger people. The cell phone appears to have become an object through which a person can provide clues about their gender identity, social and professional position, attitude toward society, character, personality, or mood. A cell phone, like clothes, may transmit information about an individual’s characteristics and about the idea they have of themselves, and which they want to transmit to others.

Social Status

Cell phone technology appears to confer power on young people. A young consumer who buys a cell phone feels powerful, not only through the use made of it, but also through the purchase in itself. Also, the number and/or quality of messages received, the number of calls, the number of contacts in the address book, the sophistication of the games and services offered by the cell phone, and the brand of the apparatus, all help to enhance the user’s social status.

Social Network

Cell phones also are a tool to build a social network via the device’s contact list. These networks are constantly evolving; the rate at which new phone numbers are added to contact lists is as rapid as that of numbers falling into disuse. Moreover, we may speak of a collective identity. The social networks based on cell phones have created a new sense of identity for teenagers and young people.

Online Social Networks

In its short life, the cell phone industry has managed to adapt to keep pace with the demands of users, and create new needs: cell phones for professionals and business people, cell phones with only basic functions for children and the elderly, others for listening to digital music, and finally the cell phone as a discrete medium for checking emails and online social networks, and consulting Internet.

Independence

Cell phones play a significant role in socialization and creating a feeling of belonging to a group, particularly among teenagers. They foster a process of emancipation from parents and act as a kind of barrier between teenagers and their parents. In other words, for young people the cell phone is above all a personal telephone, and having a personal telephone not accessible by parents marks a boundary. Having a cell phone helps a teenager to acquire an ever greater sense of self and an increasing orientation toward the peer group. The cell phone favors independence and reinforces contact with friends and other people outside the family.

The cell phone is definitive when it comes to deciding if a young person can enter into society so that young people use them to maintain their social framework. At the same time the social contacts allow them to maintain their status in terms of class and peer group. In Tokyo public schools cell phone owners have more friends than nonowners. Children and teenagers usually receive a cell phone as a gift from parents. Making a present of a cell phone could be seen as a rite of passage, a gift related to initiation into the teenager phase, into social independence. And it would appear that this rite occurs at ever earlier ages.

Short Distance

The cell phone is an instrument which facilitates contact over short distances, in the sense of contact with people with whom we do not relate on a daily basis. One typical characteristic of youth is that it involves tightly closed, local social circles, neighborhood, school, club, etc., and the cell phone here is a practical medium for maintaining contact when face-to-face conversation is not possible. When members of the social network are a greater distance away, other communication channels are preferred, such as electronic mail, social networking, fixed-line telephone, or, ever more rarely, letters.

Increased Security and Control

Cell phones are instruments of control which generate feelings of security among parents, between couples, or even for oneself when away traveling. Parents buy their children cell phones because of a need to control them and restrain them with a “digital leash.” This eagerness to control is a feeling which parents transmit to their children. Often the degree of control and sense of security is false: it is very easy to lie about where one is, and, anyway, battery life and coverage are both limited. Teenagers can mutually communicate while at home without parental control, something which was more difficult with ordinary (fixed-line) telephones, as well as at school without being controlled by teachers. In adults, this sensation of controlling/being controlled also occurs in sentimental and workplace relationships.

Permanent Mobility and Access

The fact of being mobile means that accessibility of people carrying a cell phone is perceived as permanent. This process gives rise to two opposing illusions: one, believing that we are not being controlled when in fact we can be located at virtually any moment wherever we are, and two, believing that one can control others when really cell phones only allow us to hear someone’s voice or receive an SMS without us really knowing from where. Even so, parents prefer to believe they have some degree of control than to let their children escape from their clutches. Something similar could occur in sentimental and workplace relationships between adults, and some firms employ cell phones with GPS functionality permitting their location to be tracked.

When the user does not answer calls or respond immediately to SMS text messages, the caller can experience a sensation of concern. This arises because of the wrong interpretation of availability, often understood as “obligatory” creating an illusion of “permanent availability” and the cell phone user is pressured to carry the device turned on, and to always respond to calls or SMSs. Even so, the user is more interested in being able to call others while on the move, lending less importance to always being locatable.

Entertainment and Games

Cell phones carry a broad range of functionalities, and may even act as a portable videogame console. Being up-to-date, playing the latest games, feeling integrated, and/or up with the fashion are goals pursued by many of today’s teenagers and young people. One must also bear in mind that, increasingly, more leisure time activities are available through cell phones, for example betting, buying, getting sexually stimulated, and downloading music and videos. Children under 10 years of age regard games as the most important characteristic of cell phones, since at their age communication in itself is too abstract. The incorporation of applications (“Apps”) in the latest generation of cell phones (so-called smartphones) has opened up an enormous range of possibilities for their use at work, for leisure, and for practical aspects of daily living; in many of these applications, these functions are intermixed. Cell phones are becoming personal mobile computers.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication

Voice calls and text messages are used differently depending on the purpose and on the characteristics of the message sender and receiver. Voice is synchronous communication, simultaneous in time, whereas text messages are asynchronous, like electronic mail.

Family Conciliation

The social evolution of family structures could partly explain the increase in personal telephone use. We may speak of various factors: (1) the emergence of single-parent or patchwork families: particularly reliant on external phone connections due to characteristics of their structure; (2), internal democratization of the family which accentuates individual autonomy and is susceptible of favoring diffusion of a less collective, more personal, form of telephonic communications; (3) the demand for individual communications devices given that children remain living with their parents for longer in some countries. The increasing incorporation of women into the workforce might be considered a fourth factor. Even though cell phones have not changed any social conventions, women tend to use it to cope with family responsibilities across a space-time gap, bringing their private world of domestic responsibilities to their public, occupation-related world, and vice versa.

All these changes in family morphology are reflected in affective and social bonds. Cell phones have made it possible for teenagers to construct a kind of virtual brotherhood. Moreover, cell phones promote individual thinking and networks of external support and propitiate virtual proximity (in the double sense of the word virtual). Connections mediated by cell phones only deal with the issue generating the call, leaving the parties involved free of any emotional commitment beyond the topic dealt with in the conversation or message. Present society demands fast and efficient connections. In this respect, distance is not an obstacle for connecting, but being connected is likewise not an obstacle for maintaining distances. Being connected is more economical than really relating. Thus, we may speak of new family constellations and emotional processes deriving in a society, still under construction, which gives rise to new ways of communicating to maintain family unity and the sense of belonging which both adolescents and adults need.

Individualization of Assets

This is one aspect of social evolution and the increasing quality of life in the Western world. In the technological field, telephones have followed the same path as television, in becoming an individual asset rather than a family one. Just as teenagers may have a television set in their own bedroom, they also have their own computer, and cell phone, etc.

Human Neuropsychology

C Euphoria

Drugs of Abuse

Abuse Characteristics

Bulimia Nervosa as an Addiction

The Opioid System in Drug Addiction

The euphoria associated with many classes of addictive drugs is thought to involve the stimulation of opioid receptors (for review see Koob & Le Moal, 2001 ). Chronic self-administration of heroin increases μ opioid receptor (MOR) binding in the VTA, NAc, caudate putamen, and hippocampus ( Fattore et al., 2007 ). The opioid antagonist naltrexone is useful for the treatment of alcohol addiction (e.g., Conason & Sher, 2006 ), but may not be beneficial for the treatment of other addictive drugs (e.g., Giuliano, Robbins, Wille, Bullmore, & Everitt, 2013 ). The novel MOR antagonist GSK1521498 exerts dose-dependent reductions in cocaine seeking and in heroin seeking during extinction conditions, but has no effect on cocaine self-administration and increases heroin self-administration ( Giuliano et al., 2013 ). This suggests that GSK1521498 may be beneficial to attenuate cocaine and heroin seeking as well as heroin relapse, but not cocaine and heroin self-administration.

Opioid Analgesics

Mood Alteration and Rewarding Properties

Prenatal Drug Exposure

History/Epidemiology

Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis

GLUCOCORTICOIDS AS PART OF TREATMENT STRATEGIES IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS

The euphoria that prednisolone first caused, when its dramatic effect on disease activity in RA patients was discovered, was followed by rational—and irrational—fears of side effects. During the last decade or so, low-dose glucocorticoids have regained some of their good reputation, both as bridging therapy initially in the disease course and as an important supplement in periods with disease exacerbation. 35 Glucocorticoids rapidly relieve signs and symptoms of RA, and they also reduce joint destruction. 35-37 Intra-articular administration, which ensures a high concentration of glucocorticoids at the site of inflammation and reduces synovitis more than MTX alone, has been used successfully in studies of early RA. 13, 36, 38 Despite this, many rheumatologists are reluctant to inject small joints. In the CIMESTRA study, intra-articular injections with betametasone had a rapid onset of anti-inflammatory action, the need for additional injections was low, and the cumulative dose was moderate. 1 During the 2-year study, 1579 joints were injected blindly, that is, without aid from ultrasonography. The effect lasted for 96 weeks (median time before relapse of synovitis) in proximal interphalangel (PIP) and metacarpophalangeal (MTP) joints. For other joint groups, the time before relapse of synovitis was as follows: shoulders, 88 weeks; knees, 68 weeks; elbows, wrists and ankles, 36 to 42 weeks. Seventy-five percent of the PIP joints and 64% of the MTP joints injected once, and 64% of MTP joints injected twice stayed in remission (Hørsley-Peterson K, under preparation). I hope this study will stimulate more rheumatologists to give intra-articular injections. Patients are reluctant the first time they get an injection, but later when they again experience a swollen joint, they will request an injection again.

The Effect of Substance Use Disorders on Children and Adolescents

Clinical Manifestations

Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Euphoria as an emotion

Contents

Overview [ edit | edit source ]

Suppose you are watching an Olympic final with your friends and your favourite athlete has just won a gold medal. There will be all sorts of emotional excitement because this is the moment that everyone has been waiting for. Your emotions are heightened and your body feels natural excitement. Euphoria is a state of intense excitement and happiness. German professor, Karl-Ernst Buhler, explained that “euphoria provides a feeling of omnipotence as well as of perfection and so opens up worlds of bliss”. This chapter will explore what is euphoria, what causes the euphoria and its consequences.

Definitions [ edit | edit source ]

Causes of euphoria [ edit | edit source ]

Quick quiz [ edit | edit source ]

Test your knowledge on [ grammar? ] reward circuit:

Exercise induced [ edit | edit source ]

Love euphoria [ edit | edit source ]

Music euphoria [ edit | edit source ]

Drug induced [ edit | edit source ]

Stimulants [ edit | edit source ]

Depressants [ edit | edit source ]

In contrast to stimulant drugs, certain depressants such as alcohol, ketamine and gamma-hydroxy-butyrate (GHB) can induce euphoria. During the first 10-15 minutes alcohol consumption gives the feeling of euphoria and well-being. The neurochemical basis of euphoria, particularly induced by alcohol is still remains controversial. Four neuronal mechanisms such as dopaminergic, y-aminobutyric (GABA)-ergic, opioidergic and serotonergic systems have been implicated so far. It has been suggested that ethanol may [ grammar? ] causing the relaxation, and inducing euphoria by releasing dopamine from ventral tegmental area, through activating GABA receptors (Littleton & Little, 1994). It also has been suggested that central stimulants induce euphoria by activating dopamine circuits in mesolimbic neurones (Dakis & Gold, 1990).

Gamma-hydroxy-butyrate (GHB) at small doses can activate the GHB receptors and affects the release of dopamine inducing euphoria and nausea. At high dose, GHB has a modulatory function at the GABA-B receptor leading to reduced dopamine levels and central nervous system (CNS) depression. (Schep, Knudsen, Slaughter, Vale, & Megarbane, 2012).

Ketamine activates dopaminergic reward networks. With repeated administration, dopamine supplies are depleted promoting both euphoric effects and the development of tolerance. In contrast, repeated administration of ketamine enhances serotonin levels, and single dose of ketamine has been demonstrated to improve depressive symptoms for up to 1 week (Zarate, et al., 2006).

Mania [ edit | edit source ]

Hypomania basically has the same symptom profile of mania with the distinction being that in hypomania the symptoms are not severe enough to markedly interfere with daily functioning. The bipolar disorder make up of combinations of Manic, Hypomanic, and Major depressive disorder (Koukopoulos & Ghaemi, 2009). Functional MRI showed abnormalities coincide in the prefrontal white matter, in particular prefrontal and temporal cortex associative tracts that [ grammar? ] involved human with emotion (Mahon, Burdick, & Szeszko, 2010). Another study revealed reduced activation of right rostral ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and [ grammar? ] same time increased activity I anterior cingulate, amygdala, and paralimbic cortex (Pavuluri, Passarotti, Harral, & Sweeney, 2009).

Conclusion [ edit | edit source ]

See also [ edit | edit source ]

References [ edit | edit source ]

Aron, A., Fisher, H., Mashek, D. J., Strong, G., Li, H., & Brown, L. L. (2005). Reward, Motivation, and Emotion Systems Associated With Early-Stage Intense Romantic Love. Journal of Neurophysiology, 94(1), 327-337. doi: 10.1152/jn.00838.2004.

Bearn, J., & O’Brien, M. (2015). Addicted to Euphoria: The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse. International Review of Neurobiology, 120, 205-233.

Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., Zatorre, R. J., & Salimpoor, V. N. (2011). Anatomically distinct dopamine release during aticipation and expeirnce of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257-262.

Cohen, E. E., Frey, R. E., Knight, N., & Dunbar, R. I. (2010). Rowers’ high: behavioural synchrony is correlated with elavated pain thresholds. Biology Letters, 6, 106-108.

Dakis, C. A., & Gold, M. S. (1990). Addictiveness of cental stimulants. Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse, 9, 9-26.

Dinas, P. C., Koutedakis, Y., & Flouris, A. D. (2011). Effects of exercise and physical activity on depression. Irish Journal of Medical Science, 180, 319-325. doi: 10.1007/s11845-010-0633-9.

Koukopoulos, A., & Ghaemi, N. (2009). The primacy of mania: A reconsideration of mood disorders. European Psychiatry, 24(2), 125-134.

Littleton, J., & Little, H. (1994). Curent concepts of ethanol dependence. Addiction, 89(11), 1397-412.

Mavridis, I. N. (2015). Music and nucleus accumbens. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy, 37, 121-125.

Mirko, T., Ceci, R., Stefania, S., Catani, M. V., Rossi, A., Gasperi, V., et al. (2014). Physical activity and the endocannabinoid system: an overview. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 71, 2681-2698.

Pavuluri, M. N., Passarotti, A. M., Harral, E. M., & Sweeney, J. A. (2009). An fMRI study of the neural correlates of incidental versus directed emotion processing in pediatric bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(3), 308-319.

Peter, C., & Whybrow, M. D. (1997). A Mood APart: Depression, Mania, and Other Afflictions of the Self. NY: Division of Harper Colling. Reeve, J. M. (2015). Understanding Motivation and Emotion (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Salimpoor, V. N., Bosch, I. V., Kovacevic, N., McIntosh, A. R., Dagher, A., & Jatorre, R. J. (2013). Interactions Between the Nucleus Accumbens and Auditory Cortices Predict Music Reward Value. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 340(6129), 216-219. doi: 10.1126/science.1231059.

Schep, L. J., Knudsen, K., Slaughter, R. J., Vale, J. A., & Megarbane, B. (2012). The clinical toxicology of y-hydroxybutyrate, y-butyrocactone and 1,4- butenadiol. Clinical Toxicology, 50(6), 458-470.

Seger, D. (2010). Cocaine, methamphetamine, and MDMA abuse: the role and clinical importance of neuroadaptation. Clinical Toxicology, 48, 695-708. doi: 10.3109/15563650.2010.516263.

Szabo, A., Billett, E., & Turner, J. (2001). Phenylethylamine, a possible link to the antidepressant effects of exercise? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 35, 342-343.

Tremblay, C. H., Grosskoph, S., & Yang, K. (2010). Brainstorm: Occupational choice, bipolar illness and creativity. Economics and Human Body, 8, 233-241. doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2010.01.001.

Zarate, C. A., Singh, J. B., Carlson, P. J., Brutsche, N. E., Ameli, R., Luckenbaugh, D. A., et al. (2006). A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(8), 856-864.