What is lexical meaning

Types of Lexical Meaning

The content plane of words includes denotative and connotative meanings.

1) Denotative or referential meaning, the basic type of lexical meaning, is the word‘s reference to the object.

This reference may be individual

e.g. The dog is trained

or general

e.g. It‘s not a dog.

That is why denotative meaning is subdivided into demonstrative and significative:the type of denotative meaning varies in different groups of words, the meaning of situational words is relative – it depends on the situation and context,

e.g. here, son, my, this, now

Pronominal words do not name the referent, they only point to it,

Their meaning in isolation is very general,

e.g. he – any male

But in speech their reference is always individual,

e.g. he – this particular male

The referent of proper names is always an individual object or person. They refer to each member of a particular class,

e.g. London, Paris (cities), John, Bob (men)

Specific and generic terms differ in the size of the referent group,

e.g. rose – flower; flower – plant

General terms have a wider meaning and can substitute for any specific term,

e.g. dog – English bulldog, French poodle, cocker spaniel.

The referent of abstract words can be perceived by the mind and not by the senses: miracle, polite, to manage.

2) Connotative meaning includes various additional meanings: emotional, evaluative, intensifying and expressive, e.g. hillock, to devour. As a rule, connotation co-exists with denotation. Sometimes it comes to the foreground and weakens the word‘s denotative meaning.

Words also may have a certain stylistic value. It means that they refer to this or that situation or functional style: science, everyday life, business: get – obtain –procure; child – kid – infant.

Lexical Meaning

Grammatical Meaning

Types Of Meaning

The two main types of meaning are the grammatical and lexical meanings.

We notice, for example, that word-forms such as tables, chairs, bushes though denoting widely different objects of reality have something in common. This common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality.

Thus, grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words. e.g.: the tense meaning in the word-forms of verbs (asked, spoke) or the case meaning in the word-forms of various nouns (the girl’s, the night’s).

In modern linguistic science it is commonly held that some elements of grammatical meaning can be identified by their distribution. The word-forms asks, speaks have the same grammatical meaning as they can all be found in identical distribution (e.g. only after the pronouns he, she but before such adverbs and phrases as yesterday, last month, etc.). It follows that a certain component of the meaning of a word is described when you identify it as a part of speech, since different parts of speech are distributionally different. The part-of-speech meaning of the words that possesses but one form, as prepositions, is observed only in their distribution (cf: to come in (here) and in (on, under) the table.

Unlike the grammatical meaning this component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. e.g.: the words write – writes – wrote – written possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person but in each of these forms we find the same semantic component denoting the process of putting words on the paper. This is the lexical meaning of the word which may be described as a linguistic unit recurrent in all the forms of the word and in all possible distributions of these forms.

The difference between the lexical and the grammatical component of meaning is not to be sought in the difference of the concepts underlying the two types of meaning rather in the way they are conveyed. The concept of plurality, for example, may be expressed by the lexical meaning of the word plurality. It may also be expressed in the forms of different words irrespective of their lexical meaning (girls, boards).

The interrelation of the lexical and the grammatical meaning and the role played by each varies in different word classes and even in different groups of words within one and the same class. In some parts of speech the prevailing component is the grammatical type of meaning. The lexical meaning of prepositions is, as a rule, relatively vague (to think of somebody, independent of somebody, some of the students). The lexical meaning of some prepositions is however comparatively distinct (in, on, under the table).

The lexical meaning of the word can be of two types: denotational and connotational.

One of the functions of the words is to denote things, concepts, etc. Users of a language cannot have any knowledge or thought of the objects or phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is ultimately embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning for all speakers of that language. This is the denotational meaning, i.e. that component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible. There is no doubt that a doctor knows more about pneumonia than a dancer does but they use the word and understand each other.

The second component of the lexical meaning is the connotational component which has some stylistic value of the word, the emotive charge.

Words contain an element of emotive evaluation as part of the connotational meaning. The word hovel denotes a small house or cottage and besides implies that it is a miserable dwelling place, dirty, in bad repair and unpleasant to live in.

Many connotations associated with names of animals, birds, insects are universally understood and used.

e.g.: calf (теля)– a young inexperienced person;

donkey (осел)– a foolish person;

monkey (мавпа)– a mischievous child;

serpent (змія)– a treacherous, malicious person.

But it should be mentioned here that different peoples structure the world differently. E.g.: the word bug has such figurative meanings in the English language as a crazy, foolish person and an enthusiast, the word shark means a swindler. In the Ukrainian language the words жук and акула do not have such meanings. Sometimes words in different languages can have different meanings. E.g.: the word gull means a fool, a swindler, in the Ukrainian language the word чайка can be applied to a woman or a girl. The word hawk possesses a negative meaning in the English language (a deceiver), the word сокіл is applied to a handsome and strong young man.

Words may also contain an element of emotive force as part of the connotational meaning. This is in fact one of the objective semantic features proper to some words as linguistic units and forming part of the connotative value. Such are, for example, stylistically coloured words synonymous with their neutral counterparts: child – kid – kiddie; girl – lass – girlie – lassie.

In interjections this meaning is known to prevail.

We must naturally distinguish between the emotive element as inherent in some words forming part of the connotation and the subjective use of words that are not otherwise emotionally coloured.

In actual speech expressive nuances may be obtained in different ways. In various contexts, linguistic or situational, words devoid of any emotive element may be endowed with a distinct expressive function depending on the speaker’s attitude towards his interlocutor or to the thing spoken about.

The structure of lexical meaning of a word. The problem of connotation.

Lexical meaning is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions. The word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person, number, but in each form they have one and the same semantic component denoting ‘the process of movement’.

Lexical meaning is not indivisible, it may be analyzed in three components: denotational, connotational, and pragmatic.

Both lexical & grammatical meanings may cut the word meaning & neither can exist without the other.

In some parts of speech the prevailing component is grammatical.

Aspects of lexical meaning

In the general framework lexical meaning can have several aspects:

— the denotational aspect

— the connotational aspect

— the pragmatic aspect

I. Denotational aspect of lexical meaning is the part of lexical meaning which establishes correlation b/w the name & the object, phenomenon, process or characteristic feature of concrete reality which is denoted by the given word.

Through the denotational meaning bulk of information is conveyed in the process of communication. It expresses the notional content of a word.

· Connotation conveys additional information in the process of communication

Connotation includes the following aspects:

· emotive charge (diminishing, derogative suffixes)

#a group of people crowd

Emotions are not in the focus of the speaker.

#I love you /I adore you

#to wade (to walk with an effort through the mud)

to wade through a book

III. Pragmatic aspect of the meaning— is the part of meaning that conveys the information on the situation of communication.

Focus is on the information, not on the speaker.

It falls into 4 closely interconnected subsections:

— information on the «time & space» relationship of the participants.

Grammar helps us to understand’ prepositions

The Time element when related through the pragmatic aspect of meaning is fixed indirectly.

Indirect reference to time implies that the frequency of occurrence of words may change with time & in extreme cases words can be out of time or obsolete.

— information on the participant & the given language community

#They chucked a stone at the cops, & then they did a bunk with the loot. (pronounced by criminals)=

After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money. (more official language)

Thus the language used may be indicative of the social status of a person, his age, profession or occupation.

The pragmatic aspect of the word can also convey information about the social system of the given social community: its ideology, religion, system of norms & customs.

— information on the tenor(target audience) of discourse

The tenors of discourse reflect how the addresser interacts with addressee. Tenors are based on social or family roles of the participants of communication.

— information on the register of communication

It implies the condition of communication. The register defines the general type of the situation of communication, grading the situation in formality.

3.Explain the Modern English pronunciation of the words from the historical point of: shower

before 950; Middle English shour (noun), Old English scūr; cognate withGerman Schauer, Old Norse skūr, Gothic skūra

Word Origin and History for shower

Old English scur «a short fall of rain, storm, tempest; fall of missiles orblows; struggle, commotion; breeze,» from West Germanic *skuraz (cf. OldNorse skur, Old Saxon and Old Frisian scur «fit of illness;» Old High Germanscur, German Schauer «shower, downpour;» Gothic skura, in skura windis«windstorm»), from PIE root *kew-(e)ro- «north, north wind» (cf. Latincaurus «northwest wind;» Old Church Slavonic severu «north, north wind;»Lithuanian šiaurus «raging, stormy,» šiaurys «north wind,» šiaure «north»).
Of blood, tears, etc., from c.1400. Of meteors from 1835. Sense of «bath inwhich water is poured from above» first recorded 1851 (short for shower-bath, itself attested from 1803). Meaning «large number of gifts bestowedon a bride» (1904, American English colloquial) later was extended to theparty at which it happens (1926). Shower curtain attested from 1914.

«one who shows,» Old English sceawere «spectator, watchtower, mirror,»agent noun; see show

Билет № 22

1.What are the phonetic characteristic features of the Proto Germanic language?

The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Proto-Germanic in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Indo-European up to the point that Proto-Germanic began to break into mutually unintelligible dialects. The changes are listed roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. The stages distinguished and the changes associated with each stage rely heavily on Ringe 2006, Chapter 3, «The development of Proto-Germanic». Ringe in turn summarizes standard concepts and terminology.

Lexical Meaning (Words)

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

Alex Belomlinsky/Getty Images

Lexical meaning refers to the sense (or meaning) of a word (or lexeme) as it appears in a dictionary. Also known as semantic meaning, denotative meaning, and central meaning. Contrast with grammatical meaning (or structural meaning).

The branch of linguistics that’s concerned with the study of lexical meaning is called lexical semantics.

Examples and Observations

«There is no necessary congruity between the structural and lexical meanings of a word. We can observe a congruity of these meanings, for example, in the word cat, where both structural and lexical meaning refer to an object. But often the structural and lexical meanings of a word act in different or even diametrically opposite directions. For example, the structural meaning of protection refers to an object, while its lexical meaning refers to a process; and conversely, the structural meaning of (to) cage refers to a process, while its lexical meaning refers to an object.

«The tension between structural and lexical meanings I call the antinomy between grammar and the lexicon.

«The essential aspect of the interrelation between structural and lexical meanings is that lexical meanings constrain grammatical rules. Yet, in stating the laws of grammar we must abstract from the lexical constraints on the rules of grammar of individual languages. The laws of grammar cannot be stated in terms of the lexical constraints on the rules of grammar of individual languages. These requirements are captured in the following law:

Law of Autonomy of Grammar From the Lexicon

The meaning of the structure of a word or a sentence is independent of the meanings of the lexical signs that instantiate this structure.«

(Sebastian Shaumyan, Signs, Mind, and Reality. John Benjamins, 2006)

The Sense Enumeration Model

The Encyclopedic View

«Some, though by no means all, semanticists have proposed that lexical meanings are encyclopedic in character (Haiman 1980; Langacker 1987). The encyclopedic view of lexical meaning is that there is no sharp dividing line between that part of a word’s meaning which is ‘strictly linguistic’ (the dictionary view of lexical meaning) and that part which is ‘nonlinguistic knowledge about the concept.’ While this dividing line is difficult to maintain, it is clear that some semantic properties are more central to a word’s meaning than others, particularly those properties that apply to (almost) all and only the instances of the kind, which are intrinsic to the kind, and which are conventional knowledge of (almost) all of the speech community (Langacker 1987: 158-161).» (William Croft, «Lexical and Grammatical Meaning.» Morphologie / Morphology, ed. by Geert Booij et al. Walter de Gruyter, 2000)

The Lighter Side of Lexical Meaning

Special Agent Seeley Booth: I’m glad that you apologized to the Canadian. I’m proud of you, Bones.

Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: I didn’t apologize.

Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: The word «apology» derives from the Ancient Greek «apologia,» which means «a speech in defense.» When I defended what I said to him, you told me that wasn’t a real apology.

Special Agent Seeley Booth: Why don’t you think of a word that means you feel bad for making someone else feel bad?

Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: Contrite.

Special Agent Seeley Booth: Ah!

Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: From the Latin «contritus» meaning «crushed by a sense of sin.»

Special Agent Seeley Booth: There. That’s it. Contrite. Okay, I’m happy that you contrited to the Canadian.

(David Boreanaz and Emily Deschanel in «The Feet on the Beach.» Bones, 2011)

Classification of lexical meanings

I. In the general framework of lexical meaning two components (aspects) can be singled out: denotation and connotation. The two components are closely connected with the process of naming (nomination).

The denotational meaning (denotation) is the component of the lexical meaning signifying or identifying the notion or the object and reflecting some essential features of the notion named. The denotational meaning makes the communication possible, as it is essentially the same meaning for all speakers of the language.

The connotational meaning (connotation)is complementary meaning which is added to the word denotational meaning and which serves to express all sorts of evaluative, emotional, expressive, imagery and pragmatic overtones. Connotation includes:

1) the emotive charge: daddy – father; thick – stout (полный, тучный) – buxom (упитаннный, пухлый) – fat – obese – plump, face – snout (рыло), muzzle (морда);

2) evaluation (positive or negative): clique (a small group of people who seem unfriendly to other people) – group (a set of people), new – modern – newfangled (disapproving excessively modern);

However, evaluation can enter denotation. The word friend meaning ‘ally’ is featured by positive rational evaluation: friend – “a country that has a good relationship with another country”. In this case evaluation makes the part of denotation, has the marker good in the dictionary definition, and bases on the integral features of the referent.

3) expressiveness (intensity): to love – to adore; magnificent – gorgeous – splendid – superb;

4) imagery – I heard what she said, but it didn’t sink into my mind until much later; a 15% tariff on bearing import (from to bear “to sell shares in expectation of a drop in price, in order to make a profit by buying them back again after a short time);

5) stylistic value – to start – to begin – to commence; beholder (archaic, literary) – spectator; colloquial vocabulary – cut it out, to be kidding, hi, stuff;special literary vocabulary (bookish words): cordial, fraternal, anticipate, aid, sanguinary, celestial;

6) cultural information – black cat, green eyes (cf. green-eyed monster).

The Russian word combination черная кошка denotes a black cat as well as the English one.However, a black cat is believed to bring bad luck and disaster according to some Russian superstition, that’s why it has negative connotation. The English culture relates black cats to luck, unexpected happiness, so a Russian is often surprised to see a black cat wishing “Good Luck” on English postcards. As for green eyes, they are associated with jealousy after Iago’s words: “It is thegreen-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on” (Othello,II, i. 165).

II. According to the way of nomination meanings are divided into direct (primary, proper meaning)and indirect (figurative, transferred, secondary, derived).

Direct meaning is the meaning which characterizes the referent without the help of a context, in isolation (to query = ‘to ask a question’).

Indirect meaning is the meaning formed from the direct meaning according to the models of semantic derivation (metaphor, metonymy). It is realized only in definite contexts: to query the bill = ‘to express one’s doubts about the charge’; a good head for figures / per head (metonymy).

In their turn direct meanings are divided into extended (general)and narrow (special).

General meaning is the meaning correlating to generic concept: ship = ‘a vessel’.

Narrow meaning is the meaning correlating to specific concept: ship = ‘nautical a large sailing vessel with three or more square-rigged masts’.

According to connection with referentsdirect meanings are divided intoconcrete and abstract.

Concrete meanings indicate at a referent: tongue (the body organ of taste).

Abstract meanings indicate at quality features in the abstract from referents: tongue (speech).

III. According to frequency meanings are divided into main (primary, central) and secondary (peripheric).

Main meaningis the meaning which possesses the highest frequency at the present stage of vocabulary development. For the noun table the first meaning is the main one: ‘a piece of furniture’ – 52%; ‘an orderly arrangement of facts’ (table of contents) – 35%, other meanings – 13% of the uses of this word.

Secondary meanings are less frequent.

IV. According to their genetic characteristic (in diachrony) meanings are divided into etymological, original, archaic, obsolete and present-day.

Etymological meaning is the earliest known meaning. Today the noun urchin means “a mischievous roguish child, esp. one who is young, small, or raggedly dressed”, but its etymological meaning is ‘a hedgehog’.

Archaic meaning is the meaning superseded at present by a newer one but still remaining in certain collocations. The archaic meaning of the adjective brave is “fine, excellent, admirable”. Its use is limited to some phrases among which is a brave new world. Another example is the quick and the dead or Time and tide wait for no man (≈ время не ждёт).

Obsolete meaning is the meaning which went out of use. The obsolete meaning of the verb taste is “to examine by touch, to feel; to test or try”.

Original meaning is a meaning serving as basis for the derived ones. The original meaning if the word land is “soil, hard territory”, as opposed to water.

Present-day meaning is a meaning which is most frequent in the present-day language: quick = “lasting a comparatively short time; brief”.

V. According to the style and sphere of languagein which they may occur meanings are divided into stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured.

Neutral meanings are found in the words of general use: to begin, father.

Stylistically coloured meanings mark a certain style, and in their turn are divided into bookish and colloquial, for example,dad is a colloquial word and to commence is a literary word. Bookish meanings can be poetical, scientific or learned, literary. Colloquial meanings can be literary colloquial, familiar colloquial, slang.

VI. According to realization of meaning in language system meanings are divided into dictionary and speech.

Dictionary meanings are registered in dictionaries, they are most frequent ones.

Speech meanings are revealed in speech, they are seldom found in dictionaries.

According to their combinability language meanings are divided into and free (context-independent)and bound (context-dependent).

Free meaningsare realized in free word combinations and associated with the given lingual sign: to settle (урегулировать), small (маленький).

Bound meanings depend on the grammatical form or lexical components of the word-combination they enter: to meet smb’s demand/ requirement, to settle the bill/ debt (платить); small passions (мелочный), small trickery (мелкий), small cold (слабый), small wind (тихий), small (слабый) current.

Speech meanings are also divided into usual and occasional (nonce words).

Usual meanings intersect dictionary meanings.

Occasional meanings occur in words invented and used for a particular occasion. Consider the following: “Ellen relaxed her about-to-push hand and looked at him” (I. Levin) or “Germany is the world’s largest goods exporter after China despite high labour costs and a strongish euro” (Economist 25/10/2010).

Meanings are analysed with the help of componential analysis.

Componential analysis is the investigation method which proceeds from the assumption that word meaning can be decomposed into elementary semantic components, or semantic features/ semes.

Seme is the smallest unit of meaning. For instance, the meaning of the word boy can be represented with the help of the following semes: ‘human’, ‘male’, ‘non-adult’. Wife can be analyzed into the following semes ‘human’, ‘female’, ‘adult’, ‘married’.

Componential analysis bases itself on differential oppositions like the below ones.

man : woman = boy : girl = bull : cow – sex

man : boy = woman : girl = cow : calf – age

man : bull = woman : cow = girl : calf – human / non-human beings

Differential oppositions can be easily applied to such clear-cut semantic groups as terms of kinship or words denoting colours, but they are hard to distinguish for other classes of words. It’s a certain limitation of the method.

There exist different models of componential analysis. One of them is showed in Table 2. It consists in forcing all features into a binary pattern, when two opposing sides to a single feature are represented as ‘plus’ (if the feature is present in the meaning of the word) and ‘minus’ (if the feature in question is absent).

The next model of componential analysis suggests that meanings are analysed in terms of semantic markers and distinguishers.

Semantic marker (integral seme) is a semantic feature which the word has in common with other lexical items. Semantic markers reflect systemic relations between the word and the rest of the vocabulary.

Semantic distinguisher (differential seme) is a semantic feature which differentiates the word from all other words or which differentiates individual meanings of a polysemantic word. Distinguishers reflect what is idiosyncratic about the word.

For example, the semantics of the word bachelor can be represented with the help of the following markers (they are enclosed in round brackets) and distinguishers (they are enclosed in square brackets):

1) (human) (male) [one who has never been married];

2) (human) (male) [young knight serving under the standard of another knight];

3) (human) [one who has the first or lowest academic degree];

4) (animal) (male) [young fur seal without a mate in the breeding season].

Acquiring this specific information about the word meanings is the main aim of the analysis under consideration. This information is of much value when the translator chooses the appropriate synonym. Compare all shades of meanings of the verbs of motion, showed in Table 3.

So, the semantic distinguisher differentiates between the meanings of different words.

Besides, awareness of the integral seme promotes translation of the unknown meanings of the polysemantic word. In fact, derived meanings have common integral semes with the main meaning. Translate the following figurative meanings of the word sharp considering its direct meaning, that is “having a very thin edge or point that can cut things easily [≠ blunt]”:

sharp voice, sound, intake of breath

sharp flavour, taste, cheddar cheese

sharp mind, intelligence

a sharp suit, clothes

a sharp nose, features

a sharp increase in prices, fall in unemployment.

All the meanings are united or bound by the integral seme deep (cutting)of the direct meaning, that is knife – with a fine cutting edge, not blunt.

Semes can be explicit and implicit (potential). The explicit seme in the verb to woo is ‘try to gain the love of (a woman), especially with a view to marriage’, and the implicit seme in the phrase to woo Japanese palates [customers] is‘seek the favor, support, or custom of somebody’.