What is the essence of alice s punctuation theory of screenwriting

What is the essence of alice s punctuation theory of screenwriting

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A) Sally likes “Alice in Wonderland” more now, as she understands it better.

B) Sally’s father loved “Alice in Wonderland” when he was a kid.

C) The Mad Hatter’s character makes Sally think of her own personality.

D) “Alice in Wonderland” did not make a good impression upon Susan.

E) Sally is sure that not everything is openly expressed in the book.

F) Susan has seen all the film adaptations of “Alice in Wonderland”.

G) Sally respects Disney for not changing anything in the story.

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Sally likes “Alice in Wonderland” more now, as she understands it better.

Susan: Sally, have you read “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”?

Sally: Yes. My mother read and loved it when she was younger and I have her copy. I loved it when I was younger, and even more now that I understand the metaphors and the irony.

Susan: Personally, I have a great love for the Caterpillar. And who is your favourite character from the book?

Sally: I think it is the Mad Hatter. His madness and playfulness helps me understand who I am or at least try to be as a person. What is your favourite passage from the book?

Susan: I love when the queen says “Sometimes I’ve believed in as many as six impossible things before breakfast.”

Sally: My favourite passage is Alice’s conversation with herself as she falls down the rabbit hole. It was in that moment that I really fell in love with the quaint little girl named Alice.

Susan: Do you think that the book has any undertones, or do you merely love it as it is, a book written in an eccentric and witty style, full of twisted adventures?

Sally: I would say there are many witty, eccentric, slightly twisted books out there. Of course I think there are undertones. There are so many undertones in fact that I’m afraid the Alice book may become too outdated and cryptic for today’s children.

Susan: Oh, no! I think of it as a contemporary book that can be enjoyed for years to come. I hope my children will read the same cherished copy I read and my mother read before me.

Sally: By the way, what is your favourite film adaptation of the Alice book?

Susan: I am not as familiar with the film adaptations as I am with the novel and musical interpretations. I quite like a music video that a friend of mine has done to the song “White Rabbit”, but I suppose my favourite Alice film is the Disney version.

Sally: Yes. I highly respect Walt Disney and his work, and I think the movie is well done. Though I much prefer the book itself, Disney was not afraid to add a little bit of himself to the film, which I respect him for.

I loved it when I was younger, and even more now that I understand the metaphors and the irony.

Susan: Sally, have you read “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”?

Sally: Yes. My mother read and loved it when she was younger and I have her copy. I loved it when I was younger, and even more now that I understand the metaphors and the irony.

Susan: Personally, I have a great love for the Caterpillar. And who is your favourite character from the book?

Sally: I think it is the Mad Hatter. His madness and playfulness helps me understand who I am or at least try to be as a person. What is your favourite passage from the book?

Susan: I love when the queen says “Sometimes I’ve believed in as many as six impossible things before breakfast.”

Sally: My favourite passage is Alice’s conversation with herself as she falls down the rabbit hole. It was in that moment that I really fell in love with the quaint little girl named Alice.

Susan: Do you think that the book has any undertones, or do you merely love it as it is, a book written in an eccentric and witty style, full of twisted adventures?

Sally: I would say there are many witty, eccentric, slightly twisted books out there. Of course I think there are undertones. There are so many undertones in fact that I’m afraid the Alice book may become too outdated and cryptic for today’s children.

Susan: Oh, no! I think of it as a contemporary book that can be enjoyed for years to come. I hope my children will read the same cherished copy I read and my mother read before me.

Sally: By the way, what is your favourite film adaptation of the Alice book?

Susan: I am not as familiar with the film adaptations as I am with the novel and musical interpretations. I quite like a music video that a friend of mine has done to the song “White Rabbit”, but I suppose my favourite Alice film is the Disney version.

Sally: Yes. I highly respect Walt Disney and his work, and I think the movie is well done. Though I much prefer the book itself, Disney was not afraid to add a little bit of himself to the film, which I respect him for.

A−1. I loved it when I was younger, and even more now that I understand the metaphors and the irony.

В−3. Нет информации об отце вообще.

С−1. I think it is the Mad Hatter. His madness and playfulness helps me understand who I am or at least try to be as a person.

D−2. I think of it as a contemporary book that can be enjoyed for years to come. I hope my children will read the same cherished copy I read and my mother read before me.

E−1. There are so many undertones in fact that I’m afraid the Alice book may become too outdated and cryptic for today’s children.

F−2. I am not as familiar with the film adaptations as I am with the novel and musical interpretations. I suppose my favourite Alice film is the Disney version.

G−2. Yes. I highly respect Walt Disney and his work, and I think the movie is well done. Though I much prefer the book itself, Disney was not afraid to add a little bit of himself to the film, which I respect him for.

The difference between the f. of quantity and f. of quality

Jargon.

Appeared as a result of defiance of behavior.

Can be subdivided into 2 groups:

· professionalisms. Non-terminological substitutes for prof. terms

(machine gun is replaced by sewing machine bec. of similarity of noise;

gomer=get out of my emergency room; GOK=God Only Knows,

killed an action- put in a bag).

· Official (social) terms. Used to denote non- profess. thing relevant for representatives of a social group with common interests (music fans, drug-addicts…)

(drug-out= a retired soldier returned to active service

Big gun=an important person)

Very close to jargon is cant.

Cant is a secret lingo of the underworld of criminals. Appeared in order to make speech incomprehensible to outsiders.

Slang.

As soon as a slang w. comes to be widely used it stops being felt as wrong. It may pass into the colloq. sphere and later even become neutral.

Ex: photo, phone, flu, mob, movies, exam, joker— colloq. neutral.

taxi, bus, pub, kidnap, skyscraper– neutral.

Novelty is quickly lost due to popularity (constant change in slang). It is very rich in synonyms.

Such words are v. colorful and expressive.

(mag-magazine, rad-radio, to raise hell- to become very angry, to ig- to ignore, megga-very much (mega backs), a studying machine.)

Various tropes participate in slang formation:

— metaphor (the upper storey =head)

— metonymy (skirt= girl)

— hyperbole (killing= astonishing)

— understatement ( whistle= flute, some= так себе)

Sources of slangs:

· distortions of standart words

prof (professor), congrats (congratulations), desres (desirable residence), SRO (standing room only)= jeans with low waist.

10. Vulgar words.

Stylistically lowest group of words which are too offensive for polite usage.

Lexical vulgarisms express considered unmentionable in civilized society. Their very denotation is vulgar. + the so-called “4-letter-words” (damn, shit, hell)

Stylistic vulgarisms denote nothing indecent. There is nothing improper about their reference. But their st-c connotations express strong derogatory attitude. Some scholars: they are low slang, affected colloq. speech. (ex: old bean= old man, smeller= nose)

V.w-s help to express emotions, emotive and expressive assessment of the object spoken about, perform the function of characterization.

11. Phraseology and its stylistic use.

Set-phrases are much more expressive than their non-phraseol. counter parts. As well as w-s, phras. units can be stylistically neutral, elevated, etc.

Ex: the elevated phrases

To cost a pretty penny = to cost an arm and a leg

The iron in one’s soul = permanent embitterment

Mahomet’s coffin= between good and evil

To play upon advantage= to swindle

To go to Canossa =to submit

The debt of nature= death

The night of the quill= writer

Gordian knot = a complicated problem

The sword of Damocles

A propos de bottes = unconnected with the preceding remark

Most juste= the exact word

Alive and kicking= safe and sound

A pretty kettle of fish= muddle

To fly off the handle= to become angry

To be nuts about= to be extremely fond of

To shoot one’s grandmother= to say a non-sensual or commonplace thing

To keep in the pin= to abstain from drinking

To kick the bucket, to hop the twig= to die

Mad as a bicycle, to shoot one’s grandmother

A very effective st-c device is intentional violation of phras. units

· The writer pretends to understand the phrase literally thus disclosing the inner form

· The writer reminds the reader of the additional meaning of the components

· The writer insert additional components in the set-expression

· The writer substitutes the beg. words of the phrase.

Sometimes it is accompanied by changes in spelling( Sofa, so good!= so far, so good!)

12. Figures of speech. Their classification.

Semasiology (onomasiology) is a branch of linguistics that studies stylistic phenomena in the stylistic meaning, investigates shifts of meaning and certain combination of meaning.

Stylistic phenomena effected by various shifts of meanings are usually termed “figures of speech”.

Tropes (Greek tropos – ‘turning’) are all kinds of transfer of denominations (from a traditional object to a situational object).

The psychological essence of a trope is just the prominence given to two units of sense in one unit of form. Only the double meaning creates an image; we observe a trope only when we see both meanings. If only one meaning then we deal with ‘etymological tropes’ (metaphors), ‘dead’ tropes, which are studied by lexicology. Ex: back of a chair, leg of a table, foot of a hill, выпил целую чашку.

The difference between the f. of quantity and f. of quality.

—Have you got any money on you?

—Yes, I have 3 dollars.(neutral)/Oh, yes, lots! (overestimating)/Yes, just pennies though. (undervaluing)

By quantitative difference we mean a radical difference between the usual meaning of a linguistic unit and its actual reference.

Hey you, green coat! You left your handbag!

A fine friend you are!

13. Metonymy and metaphor compared.

Metonymy is a trope based upon a real connection between the 2 objects: that which is named and the name of which is taken. (transfer by contiguity)

I was followed by a pair of heavy boots.

Stereotyped (“etymological”) metonymy (I’m fond of Dickens; I collect old china) have no expressive force as contrasted to genuine metonymy («…за рекой в поселке моя любовь, моя судьба живет»).

The following types of metonymy are differentiated:

1) names of tools instead the names of actions (the guitar played beautifully)

2) consequence instead of cause (the fish desperately takes the death=snaps at the fish-hook)

3) the material instead of the thing made of it: He examined her bronzes and clays.

4)characteristic feature of the object (Hey you, green coat! You left your handbag!)

5) a symbol instead the object symbolized (synecdoche): the crown(= king); a hand(= worker)

Synecdoche – a variety of metonymy: using the name of a part to denote the whole or vice versa.

Stereotyped synecdoche: hands – worker(s); a hundred head of cattle – a part for the whole;

Stop torturing the poor animal! (instead of …the poor dog!)

Reading books when I’m talking to you!

+ Periphrasis(см. 16 билет)

Metaphor is a trope based on likeness of the two, there being no actual connection between them. (transfer by similarity)

Time was bleeding away.

The reception was cold.

As they are disconnected, to find features in common, the speaker must search for associations in his own mind that is not as in the case of metonymy, where both objects lie before our eyes. => metaphor requires a greater intellectual effort. Metaphor seems to be a more essential shift (change of semantic planes) than is observed in metonymy.

2) Complex (sustained, prolonged) – one metaphoric statement, creating an image, is followed by another containing the development of the previous metaphor.

“This is the day of your Golden opportunity, Sarge. Don’t let it turn to brass.”

Incongruence of the parts of a complex metaphor is called catachresis (or mixed metaphors):

Trite metaphors: seeds (roots) of evil, a flight of imagination, to burn with desire. Many of them are set phrases: to fish for compliments, to prick up one’s ears, the apple of one’s eye, to bark up the wrong tree, chewing the rag, with the cards face up, etc.

“If Aitken found about us the New York job would go up in smoke” (= every chance of getting the New York job would be lost).

“Only briefly did I pay heed to the warning bell (=the feeling of alarm) that rang sharply in my mind.”

Personification is a variety of metaphor, attributing human properties to lifeless objects.

—he, she instead of it

-in classical poetry of the 17 th cent. P. was a tribute to mythological tradition and to the laws of ancient rhetoric.

-to impart the dynamic force to the description

-to reproduce a particular mood

-to depict the perception of the outer world by the lyrical hero

· ‘No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet

To chase the glowing Hours with flyingfeef.’

Allegory is a device by which the names of objects or characters of a story are used in a figurative sense, representing some more general things, good or bad qualities. This is often found in fables <басни) and parables <притчи). It is also a typical feature of proverbs (metonymical A.), which contain generalizations (express some general moral truths):

All is not gold that glitters;

Every cloud has a silver lining;

There is no rose without a thorn;

Make the hay while the sun shines

Irony(from Greek eironia – ‘mockery concealed’) is a trope based on transfer by contrast; it’s the use of words, phrases, sentences and complete texts with implied meanings that are directly opposite to the primary ones.

A fine friend you are!

Aren ‘t you a hero — running away from a mouse!

There are at least 2 kinds of irony:

1) Antiphrasis – the ironical sense is evident to any native speaker; can give only an ironical message; the peculiar word order and stereotyped words make up set phrases.

That’s a pretty kettle of fish! (Веселенькая история! Хорошенькое дельце!)

2) Utterances which can be understood either literary, or ironically. We cannot say if the speaker is serious or ironical when he says: But of course we know, he’s a rich man, a millionaire. In oral speech, irony is often marked by emphatic intonation, in writing – by inverted comas or italics.

The Aim of irony – critical evaluation of the thing spoken about => 2 types:

— “praise stands for blame”: How clever of you!

— “blame stands for praise” (seldom) – astheism: Clever bastard! Tough son-of-a-bitch! (Вот гад дает!)

Ironic coloring – when the whole phrase produce the stylistic effect, separate units of which are not stylistically relevant.

15. Hyperbole and meiosis compared.

Hyperbole– exaggeration of dimensions or other properties of the object.

The main sphere of use is colloquial speech. Stereotyped (trite) hyperboles: a thousand pardons, I’ve told you forty times, he was frightened to death, I haven’t seen you for ages.

Hyperboles serve expressive purposes – they are noticed and appreciated by the reader, though he does not take them seriously.

An expressive hyperbole/ as distinct from trite ones (used in everyday speech), is exaggeration on a big scale. There must be smth illogical, unreal, impossible contrary to common sense – in less than no time; без году неделя etc. Paradoxical, illogical hyperboles are employed for humoristic purposes.

· “… murmured such a dreadful oath that he would not dare to repeat it to himself”

· “One after another those people lay down on the ground to laugh – and two of them died.”

· “…and gave him such a kick that he went out the other end of the alley, twenty feet ahead of his squeal.”

· “One does not know whether to admire them, or whether to say ‘Silly fools’.”

· Hyperbole + metaphor (demonstrates a gigantic disproportion between what is named and the characteristics given: “And talk! She could talk the hind leg off a donkey!”

· “… he said in a voice that could have peeled rust off the keel of a ship”(мог снять ржавчину с киля корабля); “…said in a voice that could have loosened a rusty nut off the propeller of a liner…”

· “…in a silence you could lean on…”

Meiosis (understatement) – an opposite of hyperbole; it is lessening, weakening the real characteristics of the object, serves to underline the insignificance of what we speak about.

It will cost you a pretty penny. (not a penny but perhaps many pounds or dollars, a large sum of money).

· “And what did you think of our little town?” asked Zizzbaum, with the fatuous smile of the Manhattanite.

· “You’ve got good water, but Cactus City is better lit up.”

· “We’ve got a few lights on Broadway, don’t you think, Mr. Platt?”

Varieties of hyperbole (don’t confuse with meiosis!!):

— a cat-size pony (= a very small pony)

— a drop of water (= not much water)

It is meiosis when the speaker understates normal or more than normal (e.g. big) things. When the object spoken about is really small or insignificant, we have a hyperbole.

— he lives a stone’s throw from here (рукой подать)

— just a moment, please = before you could say Jack Robinson

-“She sang listlessly… and the applauseshe collected could have been packed into a thimble without overflowing.”

Hyperbole appeals directly to imagination, being an expression of emotional extravagance. The essence of meiosis is somewhat more complicated and refined; meiosis may be regarded as a kind of strengthening through apparent weakening.

Meiosis has no definite formal expression; various expressive means serve to express it:

— I was half afraid you have forgotten me.

— She writes rather too often.

— I am not quite too late.

A humorous effect is observed when downtoners (maybe, please, would you mind etc.) co-occur with offensive words in the same utterance:

— It isn’t any of your business maybe.

— Would you mind getting the hell out of my way?

Litotes – a specific form of meiosis, expressing an idea by means of negating the opposite idea.

· Not without his assistance.

· “Jeff is in the line of unillegal graft.”

· “… she was not unlike Morgiana…”

· “.. was not overpleased about it.”

· “… face completed the not-unhandsome picture”

· “He [the policeman’s officer] doesn’t like you any more than we do.”

· “His grey face was so long that he could wind it twice round his neck.”

· A writing desk the size of a tennis court

· “…the swimming pool, the size Lake Huron…”

16. Periphrasis. Epithet. Antonomasia.

Periphrasisdoes not belong with the tropes, but this way of identifying the object of speech is related to metonymy; it’s a direct description of what could be named directly. It couldn’t be expressed by one linguistic unit (the difference from metonymy).

A thriller=two hundred pages of blood-curdling narrative.

Stylistic effect – from elevation to humour.

· “I never call a spade a spade, I call it a bloody shovel.”

· Tea= the cups that cheer but not inebriate.

· Lies=alterations and improvements on the truth.

· “Major Burnaby was doing his accounts or – to use a more Dickens-like phrase – he was looking into his affairs.”

· He shouting indecent phrases = shouting some choice Anglo-Saxon phrases at the policeman.

In 19 th century prose P. carries a humoristic load.

· A disturber of a piano keys (a pianist)

· “Up Broadway he turned and halted at a glittering café, where gathered together nightly the choicest products of the grape, the silkworm, and the protoplasm.” (the best wine, dresses, people)

Определение (перифраз) из учебника по физике (и даже из учебника по литературе) не будет считаться тропом!

Epithet is a word or phrase containing an expressive characteristic of the object, and thus creating an image.

О dreamy, gloomy, friendly trees!

We can’t expect to find a place for the epithet among the tropes, because it’s not a trope, although it may be metaphoric, metonymic, or ironical.

Fixed epithets (устойчивые) are often found in folklore: my true love; a sweet heart; the green wood; a dark forest; brave cavaliers; merry old England.

Antonomasia is the use of name of a historical, literary, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original.

Brutus – a traitor

Don Juan – a ladies’ man

Rockefeller – a rich man

hooligan, quiszling (the name of the Norwegian collaborator in the years W. War II)

a mozart of painting

In such sentences there is hardly anything of special stylistic significance:

— He has sold his Vandykes.

— I’m fond of Dickens.

— This is my real Goya.

In common nouns – mackintosh, sandwich, shrapnel.

Simile – imaginative comparison; an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects.

The word explicit used in the definition distinguishes the simile from the metaphor, which presupposes similarity of the notion expressed and the notion implied. When using a metaphor we pretend to believe that the thing named is actually the thing referred to: calling a person a pig the speaker behaves as if he really believed what he said. In a simile the speaker is always aware that untidy, or greedy, or insolent person only looks or acts as does a pig.

Metaphor is a renaming and simile always employs two names of two separate objects. Simile contains at least one more component part – a word or a group of words signalizing the idea of juxtaposition and comparison. Formal signs – conj.: like, as (as if, as though), than; verbs: to resemble, to remind one of; verbal phrases: to bear a resemblance to, to have a look of etc. Examples of trite simile with alliteration:

As dead as a door-nail

As mad as a march hare

As cool as a cucumber

As proud as a peacock

To fit like a glove

To smoke like chimney

As fat as a pig

As drunk as a lord

Drunk like fish

A fresh simile, especially elaborate one is one of the best image-creating devices.

Care should be taken not to confuse the simile and any sort of elementary logical comparison. A simile pre supposes confrontation of two objects belonging to radically different semantic spheres; a comparison deals with two objects of the same semantic sphere:

She can sing like professional actress. (log. comparison)

She can sing like a nightingale. (simile)

Simile may be combined with or accompanied by another stylistic device, or it may achieve one stylistic effect or another.

‘Sustained’ (extended) simile:

18. Quasi- identity (квазитождество).

It’s a case of ‘active identification’.

Your neighbor is an ass.

Jane is a real angel.

Traditionally qualified as examples of metaphors, although only words ass and angel are used metaphorically. Taken as a whole, the two utterances differ greatly from similes. The utterances are not metaphors in the strict sense of the tem: the ‘real’ names of objects precede the figurative ones, and the idea of comparison is quite obvious. On the other hand, they lack what is indispensable for a simile – formal signals of comparison.

Rhematic part of the utterance is metonymy:

· “That old duffer? He’s oil, I guess.” (в нефтяном бизнесе)

— Why, it’s principally earthquakes and Negroes and monkeys and malarian fever and volcanoes.

“The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man: it was a busy New York Broker.”

“… she short at me with two blue pellets which served her as eyes.”

“Money is time, and writing an entertainment can bring a novelist a very sweet chunk of it”

19. Repetition of synonyms.

On the whole synonyms are used in actual texts for 2 different reasons:

“The little boy was crying. It was child’s usual time for going to bad but no one paid attention to the kid.” – an example of synonymic replacers (заменители)/variations, when the communicator intentionally ignores any differentiation of meaning in the synonyms.

2. to provide additional shades of the meaning intended.

“Dear Paul, it’s very weak and silly of me, I know, to be so trembly and shaky from head to foot.” – an example of synonymic specifiers (уточнители): the speaker is anxious to make more adequate description of his mental and physical state; two more or less synonymous adjectives are supposed to be stronger than one.

Excessive repetition of the same words makes the style poor – in a way it betrays the poverty of one’s vocabulary.

“Piggy’s an awful swell; and he always takes a girl to swell places. where they have swell music and you see a lot of swells…”

Interchange of the same thing in speech is called ‘elegant variation’:

Situational (contextual) synonyms – co-referential units, it’s not synonyms that replace one another but words with essentially different meanings.

The same person can be referred to as neighbour, student, brother, Richard, he etc.

Both synonymous replacers and situational synonyms are usually placed at some distance from one another: they do not immediately follow one another, mostly recurring in adjacent (смежный, соседний) sentences or clauses.

Elegant variation of the names (or synonymic variation) renders the idea of equality, identity to a fuller extent.

20. Pun and zeugma.

Pun – play upon words. The semantic essence of this device is based on polysemy and homonymy.

Period – промежуток времени; точка.

Soldier: Long ones.

Pun is ether polysemy actualized in the utterance which has at least 2 meanings => the recipient chooses one (1) or 2 contiguous utterances similar in form, their constituents have essentially different meaning (2).

(1) One swallow does not make a summer.

Swallow – ласточка; глоток

Is life worth living?

It depends on the liver.

Liver – печень; человек, существо

The child is father of a man.

Father – прародитель; отец

(2) It is not my principle to pay the interest, and it’s not my interest to pay the principle. Говори что думаешь, и думай, что говоришь.

Pun is also called calembour (French)

Pretended misunderstanding (here it is mostly intentional treating idioms used in their primary sense):

“So has the corkscrew.”

Cannibal king: No, one is enough. Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Zeugma consists in combining unequal, semantically heterogeneous incompatible words and phrases.

What makes zeugmatic combinations look uncommon, often humorous – disparity of grammatical types: one may be a free combination, the other an idiom (1); one is an adverbial preposition phrase, the other a prepositional object or attribute (2); grammatical connection is everywhere the same, but each unit pertains to a semantic sphere inconsistent with the other (3).

(1) “… was alternately cudgeling his brains and his donkey.”

Ломал голову себе и ребра – своему ослу.

(2) пил чай с женой с лимоном и с удовольствием

(3)”She dropped a tear and her handkerchief.”

“At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor, put on kimono, airs and the water to boil for coffee.”

21. Climax (gradation) and bathos (anti-climax).

Climax(Greek – ‘ladder’, Latin gradatio – ‘climbing up’) is such an arrangement of ideas in which what precedes is inferior to what follows. The first element is the weakest; the subsequent elements gradually rise in strength.

“I’m sorry. I’m so very sorry. I’m so extremely sorry.”

An essential point. Climax is formed by correlative notions, which are supposed to belong to the same semantic plane – words, phrases, sentences may be what is called ‘ideographic synonyms’: their meanings demonstrate different degrees of the property expressed.

Bathos– ‘back gradation’.

A real bathos is a sudden deception of the recipient: it consists in adding one weaker element to one or several strong ones, mentioned before.

Produces a humorous effect.

Except the cases of intended jest, anti-climax is climax erroneously programmed, disclosing a system of values contradicting our common sense

When husbands or when lap-dogs breathe their last.

22. Antithesis and oxymoron.

Antithesis (from Greek anti ‘against’; thesis ‘statement’) emphasizes the notions really or presumably contrastive. The purpose of using this device is to demonstrate the contradictory nature of the referent. Three varieties of A:

Two words or expressions of the opposite meanings may be used to characterize the same object:

A. may be used to depict two objects with opposite characteristics:

Two objects may be opposed as incompatible by themselves and each of them obtain a characteristic opposite to that of the other:

The most natural expression of contrast is the use of antonyms. But objects may be opposite from the particular point of view of the speaker or writer (ex: high fees – light lessons: the price of the lessons is high, their quality low, but if the quality is low the price ought to be low.)

A. of 2 metaphors:

“’You blessed darling’, cried Grace, now a rainbow instead of sunset.”

A. in the mouth of half-educated swindler paying homage to his companion’s philanthropic intentions:

“You have a kind nucleus at the interior of your exterior after all”

Trite antithesis: now or never, dead or alive, yes or no, the first and the last etc.

Oxymoron (Greek ‘sharp-dull’) ascribes some feature to an object incompatible with this feature.

And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

O. discloses the essence of the object full of discrepancies.

“I liked him better than I would like his father… We were fellow strangers.”

Отличие от антитезы.

Структурно: оксюморон всегда выражается словосочетанием, а не предложением.

Логически: оксюморон демонстрирует как бы не замечаемую отправителем речи несовместимость семантических компонентов.

23 EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF SYNTAX AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Stylistic syntax is the branch of linguistics which investigates the stylistic value of syntactic forms, stylistic functions of syntactic phenomena, their stylistic classifications as well as their appurtenance to sub-languages or styles.

Forms of sentences and word-combinations may be expressive or neurtal.

We are to take for stylistically neutral the structure of a simple sentence not possesing any particular deformities as regards the number of its constituents or their order.

Any deviation from the normal accepted structure of the sentence changes stylistic value of the utterance, making the sentence stylistically significant – expressive emotionally or belonging to some special sphere of one sub-language or another.

It’s not only syntactival forms of separate sentences (paradigmatic syntax), but the interralation of the contiguous syntactical forms as well (syntagmatic syntax).

The expressive means of syntax may be subdivided into:

1) based on absence of logically indispensable elements

· unfinished sentences (aposiopesis)

· constructions in which auxiliary elements are missing

2) based on the excessive use of speech elements (repetition: framing, anadiplosis, prolepsis or syntactic tautology, polysyndeton)

3) consisting in an unusual arrangement of linguistic elements (stylistic inversion)

4) based on interaction of syntactical forms (parallelism: chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora)

5) connection between parts of the sentence (detachment, parenthesis)

6) revaluation of syntactic means (quasi-affirmative, auasi-negative, quasi-imperative, quasi-interrogative sentences, rhetorical question)

the most general classification of expressive syntactic means: from the viewpoint of quantative characteristics of the syntactic structure there are only two possible varieties of deviation:

1) the absence of elements which are obligatory in a neutral construction

2) excess of non-essential elements

With dropping of some sentence elements the stylistic appurtenance of a sentence changes into stylistically significant.

Additional words and more complicated constructions aim at emphasizing the thought expressed.

24 ELLIPSIS. NOMINATIVE SENTENCES. APOSIOPESIS.

Ellipticalare those sentences in which one or both principle parrts (subject and predicate) are felt as missing, since theoretically they could be restored.

They’re typical of oral communication, especially colloquial speech. But there they’re not stylistically marked. In other spheres allipsis is used for a certain stylistic aim.

The missing elements are supplied by the context (lingual or extra-lingual). They’re either present in the context or they’re implied by the situation.

They impact a certain tinge of familiarity; a certain emotional tension to the narration. In personative discourse they’re used to make speech more natural, they render informal character to speech. The brevity (краткость) of the sentences and abruptness of their intonation impart a certain tinge of sharpness to them.

Sometimes the omission of subjects contribute to the acceleration of the tempo to speech.

They’re often used in dictionaries, reference books (справочники), diaries, telegrams for the sake of business-like brevity. In oral speech and fiction using of ellipsis aims at economy and expressiveness.

In contemporary prose ellipsis is mainly used in dialogue where it is conciously employed by the author to reflect the natural omittions characterising oral colloquial speech.

ABSENCE OF AUXILIARY ELEMENTS

Auxiliary words “have, do, be, will” as well as the link verb “be” are very often dropped in informal oral communication.

A sentence comprising both subject and predicate (either complete or in part) is not elliptical: we might call a sentence with the subject and a nominal, a participal, or an infinitival part of the predicate morphologically incomplete, but not elliptical, as it has its both principal parts.

Predicate is omitted in nominative sentences. Omitted member is difficult to restore.

Nom.sent-s are used in descriptive purpose; to impact dynamic force.

FUNCTION: to attract the reader’s attention to a certain idea; stating the existence of a thing.

Nominative sentences are widely used in stage directions (especially in initial, opening remarks, serving the same purpose as expositions in novels or stories).

UNFINISHED SENTENCES (APOSIOPESIS)

Means “silence”. The speaker doesn’t bring the utterance to the end. Deliberate abstraction from bringing the sentence to the end, you don’t want it = you do it deliberately. Don’t confuse the aposiopesis with cases when speaker is overwhelmed with emotion.

Aposiopesis confines the speaker’s mode of expression to a mere allusion, a mere hint at what remains unsaid.

An utterance unfinished due to external reasons (state of agitation, sudden change of curcamstances) is not a stylistic device, as in the following case:

To mark the break dashes and dots are used. It’s only in cast-iron structures that full stops may also appear, as in the well-known phrases:

Aposiopesis may be illustrated by such ready-made incomplete sentences as :

Both can have the same implication: such impudence (наглость) is unexpected)

A special variety of unfinished sent-s are represented by conditional clauses used independently:

· If they only knew that!

Examples of aposiopesis:

· You herd what the guy said: get out or else.

· “This story really doesn’t get anywhere at all. The rest of it comes later – sometimes when Piggy asks Dulcie to dine with hin, and she’s feeling lonelier than usual, and general Kitchener happens to be looking the other way; and than –“ (O.Henry) – the author invites the reader to get vent to his own imagination.

· This a story how a Beggins had an adventure. He may have lost the neigbour’s respect, but he gained – well, you will see whether he gained anything in the end.

· “people liked to be with her. And –“ she paused again. “- and she was crazy about you”

· What I had seen of Patti didn’t really contradict Kitty’s view of her: a girl who means well, but.”

· He was shouting out that he’d come back, that his mother had better have the money ready for him. Or else! That is what he said: “Or else! It was a threat.”

· “I just work here’, he said softly. ‘If I didn’t-“ he let the rest hang in the air, and kept on smiling.

· I told her, “you’ve always acted the free woman, you’ve never let any thing stop you from…” (he checks himself, goes on hurriedly). “that made her sore.”

· “well, they’ll get a chance now to show –“ (Hastily): “I don’t mean – But let’s forget that.”

· And it was unlikely that anyone would trouble to look there-until-until-well.

· «And there’s Bernie layin’

On the couch, drinkin’ a beer

And chewin’—no, not chewin’—poppin’.

So I said to him,

I said, ‘Bernie, you pop that

So I took the shotgun off the wall

(«Cell Block Tango,» from Chicago, 2002)

· Go down to Lord and Taylors or someplace and get yourself something real nice to impress the boy invited you.

In apokoinu constructions the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective creates a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one.

The double syntactical function played by one word produces the general impression of clumsiness of speech and is used as a means of speech characteristics in dialogue, in reported speech and the type og narrative known as “entrusted” in which the author entrusts the telling of the story to an imaginary narrator who is either an obsever or participant of the discribed events.

The First Consonant Shift, or Grimm’s Law.

Phonetic Peculiarities of Germanic Languages

ЛЕКЦИЯ VII

An essential feature of Germanic languages is their consonantal system, namely the result of the so-called first consonant shift.

The phenomena stated in the law were found out by comparative linguists early in the 19 th century: by the Danish scholar Rasmus Rack and by the German linguist Jacob Grimm. The earliest statement of the shift was given in Grimm’s work “German Grammar”, published in 1822. Accordingly the law is also called Grimm’s law. It expresses regular correspondences between consonants of Germanic and those of the other Indo-European languages. The correspondences may be grouped under three categories:

n p-f ( лат. plenus – готск. fulls – русск. полный)

n t-þ (лат. tres – англ. three – русск. три)

n k-h (лат. noctem – готск. nahts)

In some cases the correspondences did not take place:

n If there were two consonants together, only the former changed, the latter remained unchanged: лат. noctem – готск. nahts, лат. octo – готск. ahtau.

n If there was s before the consonant, it did not change: лат. stare – готск. standan – русск. стоять.

n b-p (русск. болото- англ. pool)

n d-t (русск.. два – готск.twai)

n g-k (лат.ego’я’- др.англ. ic[ik’])

n bh-b( санскр.bhratar ‘брат’ – готск.brōþar)

n dh-d(санскр.madhu ‘мёд’ – др.англ. medu)

n *gh-g (лат. hostis‘враг‘– готск. gasts ‘гость‘- русск. гость )

QUESTIONS. 1)What is the essence of the so-called First Consonants Shift? 2)When were the phenomena stated in the law of the First Consonants Shift found out? 3)Why is the law also often called Grimm’s Law? 4)Under what categories can correspondences between IE and Germanic consonants be grouped?

Verner’s Law.In some cases we find in Germanic Languages consonants which do not fit into Grimm’s Law. In some words it is voiced stops (звонкие взрывные), rather than voiceless fricatives глухие щелевые), that correspond in Germanic to IE voiceless stops (глухие взрывные):

n t>d(греч. pat`er–др.англ. fæder–русск. ‘отец‘)

In 1877 the Danish scholar Karl Verner offered an explanation of these exceptions. If an IE voiceless stop was preceded by an unstressed vowel, the voiceless fricative which developed from it in accordance with Grimm’s Law became voiced, and later this voiced fricative became a voiced stop.

Thus, these are not exceptions to Grimm’s Law, but results of a further development of a consonant resulting from this law:

n k-g (греч.de`kas- русск. де`сяток- готск. tigus)- Verner’s Law.

The voiceless consonants is also affected by Verner’s Law: If the preceding vowel is unstressed, s in Germanic languages becomes voiced, i.e. changes into z. Eventually zbecomes rin Western Germanic and Northern Germanic languages (but not in Gothic). This latter change z>ris called Rhotacism:Goth. laisjan ‘teach’ – OE læran – Gm. Lehren.

Substratum Theory.What could be the cause of the consonant shift? There are two possible ways: internal factors and external factors. Substratum theory is based on the latter. Its essence is the following: It was caused by events in the social life of tribes speaking Germanic languages. The conquered tribes (speaking some non-IE languages) acquired the language of the conquerors (speaking IE languages), introduced some of their own pronunciation habits. It determined the characteristic phonetic features of Germanic languages.

Questions: 1)Why do in some cases the results of the First Consonant Shift differ from expected? 2)What is the essence of Verner’s law? 3)What could be the cause of the Consonant Shift? 4)What is the essence of Substratum Theory?

The Second Consonant Shiftoccurred in High German dialects (Southern Germany). Its essence is the following: The Common Germanic voiced stop dcorresponds to High German voiceless stop t:OE dōn ‘do’–HG tun; OE bedd‘bed’, Goth. Badi–HG Bett.

The Common Germanic voiceless stop pcorresponds to High German voiceless fricative fafter a vowel: OE hopian ‘hope’-HG hoffen.

The Common Germanic voiceless stopk corresponds to High German voiceless fricative ch[x] after a vowel: OE macian ‘make’ – HG machen.

The Second Consonant Shift occurred between the 5th and 7th centuries A.D.

1) Questions: 1)What dialects did the Second Consonant Shift occur in?2) What is its essence?

Vowels.The main characteristic feature in the sphere of vowel sounds is the treatment of the IE short vowels aandoand the long vowels ō and ā.

IE short oandaappear as short a in Germanic languages: IE noctem,Russ.ночь- Goth. Nahts, Germ. Nacht. (o-a)

Conclusion:there was neither a shorto nor a long āin Germanic languages. Later on these sounds appeared from different sources.

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What is the essence of alice s punctuation theory of screenwriting

Now we are ready to start.

My absolute favourite film of all time is ‘Local Hero’. Peter Riegert plays a Texas oil man who’s sent to a stunningly picturesque Scottish fishing town to negotiate with the locals to buy the whole town, so that his company can raze it to build an enormous oil refinery. This film, while being warm and hilarious, is also one of the most subtle films I’ve ever seen. The humour of some of the scenes can slip by if you’re not paying attention; in fact, I picked up more and of its subtleties with each subsequent viewing.

‘Manhattan’ is a film that could make a boy like me, who’s never been to New York, fall in love with the place. Funny, bitter-sweet, sad, pulsing to the great tunes of George Gershwin and shot in stunningly gorgeous widescreen black-and-white by Gordon Willis. And I almost always cry at the ending. I think this is Woody Allen’s greatest film, despite the fact that ‘Annie Hall’ won more accolades from Hollywood. It’s far more sophisticated, more bitter-sweet, still bitingly funny, but more of a ride for your emotions. A masterpiece.

Mere words fail to describe this film. You’ve heard of it. It’s ‘A Space Odyssey’. See it if you haven’t, and prepare to have your mind blown. It is a film that sort of encompasses art as a whole rather than just utilizing the cinema. It is a movie, it is a painting, it is a philosophy book, and finally a musical symphony. Do not watch it on video, or you’ll miss 2/3 of the images. Douglas Trumbull and the people who brought Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick’s vision to the screen set a standard of visual effects that’s still hard to beat, in my opinion.

I never used to like cartoons but ‘Ratatouille’ is, in a word, perfect. It’s the essence of ‘cinematic’. It is beautifully ‘photographed’, amazing fluid, sailing, flying camera movement, wonderful storytelling, endearing characters and acting, and it’s all about the love of food and finding the artist within yourself, being true to yourself and your abilities and passions. I absolutely adore this film and hope to see it again and again.

This is one of a handful of movies to earn a five-star rating from me. WALL-E should be recognized as the first film to truly reconcile digital technology with a human soul. Every single frame reflected back into itself as the artists and engineers created a mechanical character who gleaned the essence of humanity by sifting through all the things we tossed away. In the end, the machine captured the human condition and presented it back to us, using sophisticated and frequently brilliant film references. The movie successfully showed us how our rush toward digitization could destroy the fragile physical world we call home.

You have 15 seconds to complete the task. (Pause 15 seconds.)

Now you will hear the texts again. (Repeat.)

This is the end of the task. You now have 15 seconds to check your answers. (Pause 15 seconds.)

1) My favourite film is made in an unusual format.
2) The idea behind the film is truly significant.
3) This film causes feelings of happiness and sadness at the same time.
4) I have watched this film several times
5) The film has won a Hollywood award.
6) This film should be seen on the big screen.
7) My favourite film is entirely computer-animated.

Верный ответ: 436172

Now we are ready to start.

You have 15 seconds to complete the task. (Pause 15 seconds.)
Now you will hear the text again. (Repeat.)
This is the end of the task. You now have 15 seconds to check your answers. (Pause 15 seconds.)

A The artist had expected a large number of replies from children.
B The artist was sure that painting attracted many young people.
C The artist is surprised that children paint for their families.
D The artist thinks allowing children into a kitchen can be a problem.
E The artist’s parents taught him to experiment.
F The artist wants children to run their own TV show.
G The artist used to get annoyed when his father helped him.

Верный ответ: 2112321

Now we are ready to start.

Question: Can you explain the difference between a managed and unmanaged forest before we talk about water quality?
Answer: An example of an unmanaged forest might be a national park where by law, no forest management activities are allowed. They are strictly there to serve as recreation and as just natural areas. That’s one extreme, and then you have, say, land that is owned by the forest industry. We own the land to produce timber, to produce raw materials for our mills. When I speak of a managed forest, I’m talking about a place where trees are planted, they are nurtured through their lifetime, and they’re thinned. There might be some fertilization, then ultimately, they are harvested, taken to a mill to make forest products, and then the next forest is started.
Question: In your view, what is the role of the forest in producing high quality water?
Answer: In any given river basin the best water quality comes from the forest. This is true, whether it’s a national park where basically nothing is going on, or whether it’s a very heavily managed forest.
If you think about a forest, when it rains, some of the rain is intercepted by the tops of the trees and held there. The velocity of the rain is reduced as it falls down through the forest canopy, so that when the rain actually strikes the forest floor, it’s striking it with much less force. Plus, the forest floor is covered with leaves and bushes and other vegetation that also helps to absorb the velocity of the water as it falls. Therefore, you don’t get the rapid surface water runoff from the rainfall that you might get in some other land use, worse case being pavement. In addition to that, the trees have deep root systems, which create opportunities for lots of underground water storage. The water will eventually seep its way through the soil into the streams, rather than running across the surface and perhaps picking up sediment and other pollutants that can get into the water. That’s it in a nutshell, that’s what the forest does for water quality.
Question: What advice would you give to developers or city planners about the importance of trees?
Answer: I think trees are important in cities for a number of reasons. First of all, they make fora more attractive place. Additionally, trees mitigate, to some degree, hot temperatures and provide shade. Trees, especially in a hot climate, can make it more comfortable. As we all know, trees take in carbon dioxide, and give off oxygen and that’s something that we all need and certainly the more trees you have scattered out through developed areas, the more places you have for songbirds and squirrels and other types of wildlife.
Question: When the drought occurred last summer, we had a state of emergency. As an Environmental Manager, what is your view of what was happening and what it may mean from a larger perspective?
Answer: We’ve always had droughts and certainly the drought of last year was an extremely difficult one. Just looking at it from a forestry standpoint, you have to worry about whether the trees are getting enough water and certainly, the trees that had recently been planted just the winter before. That year is a critical year and they need enough water in their first year.
Question: So you really do get worried about it, because it could destroy the forest ultimately, if there wasn’t enough water, especially for the new crops?
Answer: A drought could probably not destroy the forest, but it certainly does slow down its growth. If trees are stressed by drought, it makes them more susceptible to disease and to attack by insects. As I mentioned, the trees that have just recently been planted, are particularly susceptible to drought in that first year.
Question: Speaking about saltwater intrusion, how do you see the problem getting started in the first place?
Answer: The saltwater moving up the river is largely a result of not enough fresh water coming down the river to keep the saltwater out where it’s supposed to be. This holds true particularly in times of drought, it allows the saltwater to come farther and farther up the river.
Question: What are the reasons why water is reduced downstream?
Answer: The freshwater flow can be reduced for a number of reasons. One is natural drought, which we can’t do a whole lot about. Another is interbasin transfer, say, if someone in one river basin is pulling their drinking water out of a particular river, using it, treating it and then discharging it into a different river, then certainly there’s been a net loss of fresh water flow coming down the river where that water was drawn. Consumptive uses can also affect the volume of fresh water. I mean uses where water is taken out of the river for manufacturing practices and released as steam, as opposed to being treated and released back into the river. Certainly as population increases, people need more water for drinking and washing clothes and more and more water is drawn out of the river.
Question: Many industries use water and fresh water is a key to the economy of the areas. What happened last year to your company when salt was making its way up the river? What would the salt have done if it had gotten into your operations?
Answer: If the saltwater comes far enough up the river and gets into the water intake where our manufacturing facility takes in the water, we cannot use saltwater in the process that we use to make pulp and paper. That results in having to shut the operations down and that entails great costs, plus it sends employees home. It puts us in a position where we are no longer able to accept logs from loggers, so it affects the loggers that are out in the countryside.
Question: How concerned are you about the future of saltwater intrusion, as upriver as you are?
Answer: We’ve always experienced saltwater intrusion in these coastal rivers. It is a natural phenomenon. However, more water will be drawn out of the river upstream, as the population increases, or if you have more situations of interbasin transfer. We don’t have a lot of that going on right now, but should that increase in the future, then the obvious result would be more frequent occurrences of saltwater coming up the river and that does give us concern. The intrusion of saltwater in these fresh water rivers not only has an impact, say, on manufacturing, but also has an impact on the biological communities that are in these rivers. I’m not an expert in that but I think I know enough to predict that when the water becomes saltier, the dissolved oxygen content will decrease and in most cases less dissolved oxygen is not good for many of the fish and plant communities that are in these river systems.

You have 15 seconds to complete the task. (Pause 15 seconds.)
Now you will hear the text again. (Repeat.)
This is the end of the task. You now have 15 seconds to check your answers. (Pause 15 seconds.)
This is the end of the Listening Test.

Вы услышите интервью с учёным. В заданиях 3-9 запишите в поле ответа цифру 1, 2 или 3, соответствующую выбранному Вами варианту ответа. Вы услышите запись дважды.

Graphical expressive means and stylistic devices

Phonetic Stylistic Devices and Graphical Means.

5. Graphical Means

stylistic elements are the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written’

Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you to get and keep your reader’s / listener’s attention.

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication plays an important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. A word may acquire a desired phonetic effect only in combination with other words. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception and feeling and therefore subjective. However there exist psychological works on the theory of sound symbolism. They checked the associations, which the tested people have with the definite sounds. Statistics shows that their answers coincide very often.

Verier St Woolman, one of the founders of the theory of sound symbolism claimed that a certain sound when pronounced clearly and strong has special meaning and feeling. For example the sound [d], when repeated often may produce an effect of something evil, negative and wicked.

The sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, often contributes something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate analysis of sound arrangement.

The aesthetiс effect of the text is composed not only with the help of sounds and prosody, but with the help of sounds and prosody together with the meaning. The sound side of the belles-letters work makes a whole with rhythm and meaning and can’t influence the reader separately.

To influence aesthetically the sound part of the text should somehow be highlightened. An author can increase an emotional and aesthetic effect of his work through choosing the words, their arrangement and repetitions. Let’s see what phonetic SDs can secure this function.

Onomatopoeia

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as thud, bowwow, ding-dong, buzz, bang, ‘cuckoo. These words have different degrees of ‘imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to decipher it.

e.g. And now there came the chop-chop of wooden hammers.

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called «echo writing». Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain» (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

We’re foot-slog-slog-slog-sloggin’ over Africa –

Foot-foot-foot-foot –sloggin’ over Africa.

(Boots – boots – boots – boots – moovi’ up and down again!)

Onomatopoeia helps to create the vivid portrayal of the situation described, and the phonemic structure of the word is important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations.

Alliteration and assonance

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: » The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, «Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before» (E. A. Poe). Alliteration is also used to name the repetition of first letters: Apt Alliteration’s artful aid.(Charles Churchill).

Alliteration has a long tradition in English poetry as Germanic and Anglo-Saxon poems were organized with its help. (Beowulf)

Assonance is the repetition of similar stressed vowels within the line or stanza.

“… Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden,

I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore… (E. A. Poe)”

Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning. However it supplies the utterance with a certain nuance of the meaning [d]. That’s why alliteration is regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author’s idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself.

Alliteration heightens the general aesthetic effect of the utterance when it has connection with sense. Now it’s used only as a subsidiary device. Its role is an expressive one – alliterated words indicate the most important concepts. It’s often used in emotive prose, newspaper headlines, titles, proverbs and sayings: Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice; safe and sound; part and parcel etc.

Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. Thus, the first criterion is the identity of sound. Form this point of view we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (heart – part, flood-blood).

Incomplete rhymes are divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes (ассонансы) and consonant rhymes (консонансы). In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in (advice-compromise). In consonant rhymes, on the contrary, consonants are identical and disparity in vowels, as in (wind-land, grey-grow).

IV according to their position: e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line:

“I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley)

The rhyme has 2 functions, which are realized simultaneously: disserving (it breaks the line into 2 distinct parts, making the reader to pause) and consolidating (consolidates the ideas expressed in 2 parts).

Rhythm

Rhythm is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, more or less regular. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard.

It exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It stirs up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in architecture.

It’s not only a regular pattern of sounds or movements; it’s also any regular pattern in nature or in life. Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns.

Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and poetry, but also for prose. In prose rhythm is closely connected with the metre, i.e. different metrical patterns. The rhythm of prose is based on the succession of images, themes and other big elements of the text; repetition, parallel constructions, chiasmus- перекрестный/ реверсированный повтор, similar syntactical patterns. The unit of measure here is not a syllable but a structure, a word-combination, a sequence of phrases, sentences and supra-phrasal units.

Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense, helps to get the flow of thoughts and humour of the author. In poetry it conveys the mood, emotions and feelings, sharpens the thought of the author and his characters. Rhythm adds specific importance to some ideas and feelings, it helps to create reality in text. It has expressive, symbolic and graphic functions. It can imitate movement, behaviour and even setting. It foregrounds some particular words, thoughts, ideas, feelings, and vice versa obscures others, thus adding a per’spective to the text.

Graphical EMs

Graphical EMs serve to convey in the written form those emotions which in the oral speech are expressed by intonation and stress, in written form they are shown mostly with the help of punctuation and deliberate change of a spelling of a word.

“A detective! I never ‘eard of such a thing! What d’yer come ‘ere for if yer want to be a detective. ‘Ere, yer not big enough, ‘cos yer’d ‘ave to be a pleeceman first before they’d let yer be a detective, and they’d never ‘ave yer as a pleeceman. ” (J.D. Priestley,“ Angel Pavement”)

Woman, without her, man is nothing.

All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker. Such ‘emphatic’ punctuation is used in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative) [You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions, suspense etc.

The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication (laaarge) are used to indicate the additional stress on the emphasis word or part of the word.

There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and the intonation they reflect, for their choice is too inadequate for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation.

The categories of the text

Textual types refer to the following four basic aspects of writing: descriptive, narrative, expository, and argumentative

Descriptive text type

Based on perception in space. Impressionistic of landscapes or persons are often to be found in narratives such as novels or short stories. Example: About fifteen miles below Monterey, on the wild coast, the Sido family had their farm, a few sloping acres above the cliff that dropped to the brown reefs and to the hissing white waters of the ocean.

Purpose

Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event e.g. to:

· describe a special place and explain why it is special

· describe the most important person in your life.

Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.

Features

Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes:

· to engage a reader’s attention

· to create characters

Language

· aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like

· relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs.

· is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description.

· strong development of the experience that «puts the reader there» focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.

Narrative text type

Based on perception in time. Narration is the telling of a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.

Purpose

The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers’ interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. The common structure or basic plan of narrative text is known as the «story grammar». Although there are numerous variations of the story grammar, the typical elements are:

· Setting — when and where the story occurs.

· Characters — the most important people or characters in the story.

· Initiating event — an action or occurrence that establishes a problem and/or goal.

· Conflict/goal — the focal point around which the whole story is organized.

· Events — one or more attempts by the main character(s) to achieve the goal or solve the problem.

· Resolution — the outcome of the attempts to achieve the goal

The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher constructing the map.

Types of Narrative

There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories,adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience.

· Characters with defined personalities/identities.

· Descriptive language to create images in the reader’s mind and enhance the story.

Structure

In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions:

Orientation

(Introduction) in which the characters, setting, and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? When? Where? E.g. Mr. Wolf went out hunting in the forest one dark gloomy night.

Complication or problem

The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life).

Resolution

There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader.

Further more, when there is plan for writing narrative texts, the focus should be on the following characteristics:

· Plot: What is going to happen?

· Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place?

· Characterization: Who are the main characters? What do they look like?

· Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved?

· Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?

· Expository Essay

· Exposition is a type of discourse used to explain, describe or inform. In an expository essay, the purpose is to give the reader a balanced account of a subject, with a neutral, objective tone. The structure typically includes:

· Introduction:

· Lead the reader into the topic and state the overall point/purpose of your essay

· Main body:

· Divide the main topic of your essay down into sub-points. These points can involve describing, explaining, comparing, or classifying, depending on the purpose of your paper.

· Conclusion

· As with any essay conclusion, the aim is to briefly remind the reader of your overall point, possibly suggest wider implications, and give the essay a satifying sense of closure

· Argumentative Essay

· The purpose of an argumentative essay is to convince the reader of the validity of your point of view. Although your essay should still appeal to the reader’s logic rather than emotion, you should clearly state an opinion rather than appearing neutral. The structure typically includes:

· Introduction:

· Lead the reader into the topic, the controversy or debate surrounding that topic, and clearly state your position.

· Body:

· Begin by making points that support your overall position.

· Then present and refute opposing arguments. Try to distance your own voice in the text from the opposing argument (e.g. It has been claimed that. Several writers have argued that. However. ).

· Note that you can also refute possible opposing arguments after each supporting argument. Use whichever structure seems clearest.

· Conclusion:

· This is your final chance to convince the reader. Do not introduce new arguments here, but rather restate your overall position clearly and briefly explain how you have demonstrated its validity.

Word stress

In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. Stress is typically signaled by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in pitch.

The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress or lexical stress. Some languages have fixed stress, meaning that the stress on virtually any multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as the first or the penultimate. Other languages, like English, have variable stress, where the position of stress in a word is not predictable in that way. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such as primary stress and secondary stress, may be identified. However, some languages are considered to lack lexical stress entirely.

A few things to remember:

1. A word can only have one stress.In a very long word you can have a secondary stress but it is always a much smaller stress.

2. Only vowels are stressed, not consonants. The vowels in English are a, e, i, o, and u. The consonants are all the other letters.