The university was a center of the Royalist Party during the English Civil War (1642–1649), while the town favored the opposing Parliamentarian cause. Soldier-statesman Oliver Cromwell, chancellor of the university from 1650 to 1657, was responsible for preventing both Oxford and Cambridge from being closed down by the Puritans, who viewed university education as dangerous to religious beliefs. From the mid-eighteenth century onward, however, the University of Oxford took little part in political conflicts.

Administrative reforms during the nineteenth century included the replacement of oral examinations with written entrance tests, greater tolerance for religious dissent, and the establishment of four colleges for women. Women have been eligible to be full members of the university and have been entitled to take degrees since 1920. Although Oxford’s emphasis traditionally had been on classical knowledge, its curriculum expanded in the course of the nineteenth century and now attaches equal importance to scientific and medical studies.

The list of distinguished scholars at the University of Oxford is long and includes many who have made major contributions to British politics, the sciences, medicine, and literature. More than forty Nobel laureates and more than fifty world leaders have been affiliated with the University of Oxford. Since its foundation in 1823, the Oxford Union, a private club devoted to formal debating and other social activities, has numbered among its members many of Britain’s most noted political leaders.

Facilities

Libraries

Oxford’s central research library is the Bodleian, founded in 1598 by Sir Thomas Bodley. With over 8 million volumes housed on 117 miles of shelving, it is the second-largest library in the UK, after the British Library. It is a legal deposit library, which means that it is entitled to request a free copy of every book published in the UK. As such, its collection grows at a rate of over three miles of shelving every year. [9] Its main central site is comprised of the Radcliffe Camera, the Old Schools Quadrangle, the Clarendon Building, and the New Bodleian Building. A tunnel underneath Broad St connects the buildings. There are plans to build a new book depository in Osney Mead, and to remodel the New Bodleian building to better showcase the library’s various treasures (which include a Shakespeare First Folio and a Gutenberg Bible) as well as temporary exhibitions. [9] Several other libraries, such as the Radcliffe Science Library and the Oriental Institute Library also fall within the Bodleian Group’s remit.

As well as the Bodleian, there are a number of other specialized libraries in Oxford, such as the Sackler Library which holds classical collections. In addition, most academic departments maintain their own library, as do all colleges. The University’s entire collection is cataloged by the Oxford Libraries Information System, though with such a huge collection, this is an ongoing task. Oxford University Library Services, the head of which is Bodley’s Librarian, is the governing administrative body responsible for libraries in Oxford. The Bodleian is currently engaged in a mass-digitization project with Google. [10]

Museums

Oxford maintains a number of museums and galleries, in addition to its libraries. The Ashmolean Museum, founded in 1683, is the oldest museum in the UK, and the oldest university museum in the world. [11] It holds significant collections of art and archaeology, including works by Michaelangelo, da Vinci, Turner, and Picasso, as well as treasures such as the Parian Marble and the Alfred Jewel. The Ashmolean is currently undertaking a £60m redevelopment, [12] which will double the display space as well as provide new facilities.

The Museum of Natural History holds the University’s anatomical and natural history specimens. It is housed in a large neo-Gothic building in the University’s Science Area. Among its collection are the skeletons of a Tyrannosaurus rex and triceratops, and the most complete remains of a dodo found anywhere in the world. It also hosts the Simonyi Professorship of the Public Understanding of Science.

Adjoining the Museum of Natural History is the Pitt Rivers Museum, founded in 1884, which displays the University’s archaeological and anthropological collections, currently holding over 500,000 items. It recently built a new research annexe; its staff have been involved with the teaching of anthropology at Oxford since its foundation, when as part of his donation General Augustus Pitt Rivers stipulated that the University establish a lectureship in anthropology.

The Museum of the History of Science is housed on Broad St in the world’s oldest-surviving purpose-built museum building. [13] It contains 15,000 artifacts, from antiquity to the twentieth century, representing almost all aspects of the history of science. In the Faculty of Music on St Aldate’s is the Bate Collection of Musical Instruments, a collection mostly comprising of instruments from Western classical music, from the medieval period onwards. The Botanic Garden is the oldest botanic garden in the UK, and the third-oldest scientific garden in the world. It contains representatives from over 90 percent of the world’s higher plant families. Christ Church Picture Gallery holds a collection of over 200 old master paintings.

Buildings and parks

In addition to the museums and library, the University of Oxford is also compromised of several historical buildings and locations:

Programs

Central governance

The university’s formal head is the Chancellor (currently Lord Patten), though as with most British universities, the Chancellor is a titular figure, rather than someone involved with the day-to-day running of the university. Elected by the members of Convocation, a body comprising all graduates of the university, the Chancellor holds office until death.

The Vice-Chancellor is the de facto head of the University. Five Pro-Vice-Chancellors have specific responsibilities for Education; Research; Planning and Resources; Development and External Affairs; and Personnel and Equal Opportunities. The University Council is the executive policy-forming body, which consists of the Vice-Chancellor as well as heads of departments and other members elected by Congregation, in addition to observers from the Student Union. Congregation, the «parliament of the dons,» comprises over 3,700 members of the University’s academic and administrative staff, and has ultimate responsibility for legislative matters: It discusses and pronounces on policies proposed by the University Council. Oxford and Cambridge (which is similarly structured) are unique for this democratic form of governance.

Two university proctors, who are elected annually on a rotating basis from two of the colleges, supervise undergraduate discipline. The collection of University Professors is called the Statutory Professors of the University of Oxford. They are particularly influential in the running of the graduate programs within the University. Examples of Statutory Professors include the Chichele Professorships, the Drummond Professor of Political Economy, and so forth. The various academic faculties, departments, and institutes are organized into four divisions, each with their own Head and elected board. They are the Humanities Division; the Social Sciences Division; the Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences Division; and the Medical Sciences Division.

Teaching and degrees

Undergraduate teaching is centered upon the tutorial, where one to three students spend an hour with a teacher discussing their week’s work, usually an essay (arts) or problem sheet (sciences). Students usually have around two tutorials a week. These tutorials are complemented by lectures, classes, and seminars, which are organized on a departmental basis. Graduate students undertaking taught degrees are usually instructed through classes and seminars, though naturally there is more focus upon individual research.

The university itself is responsible for conducting examinations and conferring degrees. The passing of two sets of examinations is a prerequisite for a first degree. The first set of examinations, called either Honor Moderations («Mods» and «Honor Mods») or Preliminary Examinations («Prelims»), are usually held at the end of the first year (or after five terms in the case of Classics). The second set of examinations, the Final Honor School («Finals»), is held at the end of the undergraduate course. Successful candidates receive first, second, or third-class honors based on their performance in Finals. Research degrees at the master’s and doctoral level are conferred in all subjects studied at graduate level at the university.

Colleges

There are 39 colleges of the University of Oxford and seven Permanent Private Halls, each with its own internal structure and activities. Colleges have responsibility for admitting undergraduates and organizing their tuition; for graduates, this responsibility falls upon the departments. All students and many of the academics are attached to colleges, where they live, eat and socialise. It is also the place where students receive one on one teaching sessions, known as tutorials. Each college appoints its own teaching staff and fellows in each subject; decides which students to admit, in accordance with University regulations and is responsible for the domestic arrangements and welfare of its own undergraduates, graduates, post-doctoral researchers, and staff in general. Colleges admit students to study a wide variety of subjects. This is deliberate as it means that students to meet, talk to and make friends with people from different disciplines thus broadening their education. A graduate remains a member of his or her college for life.

The heads of Oxford colleges are known by various titles, according to the college, including warden, provost, principal, president, rector, or master. The colleges join together as the Conference of Colleges to discuss policy and to deal with the central University administration. Teaching members of the colleges (fellows and tutors) are collectively and familiarly known as dons (though the term is rarely used by members of the university itself).

Many University of Oxford colleges host overseas students (primarily from American universities) enrolled in study abroad programs during the summer months.

Oxford University Department for Continuing Education caters mainly for mature and part-time students.

Student life

Beyond the prestige involved with attending the University of Oxford, students are able to enjoy a host of activities. There various clubs and societies are listed below:

Traditions

The University of Oxford has a long tradition of academic dress, and a visitor to Oxford during term will see academic dress worn on a regular basis.

Clerical-type gowns

The clerical-type gown has no collar, but instead has the voluminous material of its back and sleeves gathered into a yoke. All of the above have open bell-shaped sleeves, with the exception of the MA gown and the Doctors’ convocation habit. The MA gown has long closed sleeves with arm slits just above the elbow and a crescent-shaped cut at the foot of the sleeve, forming two forward-facing points. The Doctors’ convocation habit is sleeveless. [14]

Lay-type gowns

The lay-type gown derives from a garment fashionable in Elizabethan times. It is less voluminous than the clerical-type gown, and has a flap collar and long closed sleeves with arm slits just above the elbow, except for the Commoners’ gown, which is sleeveless.

Gowns of the same basic shape are worn by solicitors, Queen’s Counsel, court ushers, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the Lord Chancellor.

Hoods

Hoods in Oxford are of three shapes. Doctors (except Doctors of Clinical Psychology) and Bachelors of Divinity wear hoods in the Oxford full shape, scarlet in the case of doctors and black in the case of Bachelors of Divinity. All other hoods can be either in the Burgon shape or the Oxford simple shape, though some are traditionally made in one shape or the other.

Generally, hoods are worn by graduates whenever subfusc is worn, but sometimes they are worn with an ordinary tie, such as by a lecturer at a public lecture.

Academic caps

Men wear a mortarboard (also known as a square or trencher cap), which is not worn indoors, except by the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, and Proctors. When meeting the Vice-Chancellor, Proctors, or other senior official of the university in the street, it is traditional for a man to touch or raise his cap. In practice, few people now wear their caps, and instead carry their caps on occasions where caps are required.

Women may choose between the mortarboard or the soft cap. The soft cap is not removed indoors, although the mortarboard may now be removed or left on indoors at the wearer’s discretion.

Doctors in the lay faculties (those except Divinity and Philosophy) wear Tudor bonnets, which are round and made of velvet.

Subfusc

Subfusc comes from the Latin for «of a dark/dusky color,» and refers to the clothes worn with full academic dress in Oxford. Generally, this means, for men:

In addition, doctors in the higher faculties and senior university officials wear bands, such as those worn with legal court dress.

Members of Her Majesty’s Forces may wear their service uniform with gown and hood (for graduates) in place of subfusc. On occasion, uniform swords may be worn. Persons in Holy Orders may wear clerical dress instead of subfusc.

Subfusc is worn at university matriculation, at university examinations and degree ceremonies and at Encaenia. During exams, candidates often also wear a carnation in their buttonholes: White for the first exam, pink thereafter, and red for the final exam of the run. Although this system has differed over time, this is the one currently advised by the University and its Colleges.

Formal Hall

Formal Hall or Formal Meal is the traditional meal held at some of the older universities in the United Kingdom at which students dress in formal attire and often gowns to dine. The nature of Formals varies widely between the colleges and halls that hold them. In some colleges, Formals may be held every night, and are simply a second sitting of hall at which gowns are worn and grace is read. In other colleges, Formals may be special events to which guests from outside the college are invited.

The wearing of gowns at formals is compulsory at some colleges and various other traditions are usually observed, including grace said in Latin or English. The wearing of gowns may sometimes constitute the only dress code; in other cases, formal wear (for example, a lounge suit for men or equivalent for women) is required in addition to, or instead of, the gown.

Almost all Oxford formal halls include a High Table, exclusively for the Senior Common Room of the college and their guests, with students eating at the lower tables. The high table is often raised above the floor level of the hall. A few of the more modern colleges, for example Linacre College and Wolfson College, have discontinued (or never had) this practice, in order to promote equality between fellows and students.

There may be one or more after dinner speakers at the end of the dinner or even between courses if it is a special occasion.

Notable alumni

There are many famous Oxonians, as alumni of the University are known:

Oxford has had a role in educating four British and at least eight foreign kings, 56 Nobel prize-winners, three Fields medallists, three Oscar winners, 25 British Prime Ministers, 28 foreign presidents and prime ministers, seven saints, 86 archbishops, 18 cardinals, and one pope. Eight of the last 12 British Prime Ministers have been Oxford graduates. All four Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom who served between 1880 and 1905—Gladstone, Lord Salisbury, Lord Rosebery, and Balfour—were educated at Eton and then at Christ Church.

T. E. Lawrence was both a student and a don at Oxford, while other illustrious members have ranged from the explorer, courtier, and man of letters Sir Walter Raleigh to the media magnate Rupert Murdoch. The founder of Methodism, John Wesley, studied at Christ Church and was elected a fellow of Lincoln College. The Burmese Democracy Activist and Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi was a student of St Hugh’s College, Oxford.

Amongst the long list of writers associated with Oxford are Evelyn Waugh, Lewis Carroll, Aldous Huxley, Oscar Wilde, C. S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, Graham Greene, Phillip Pullman, Vikram Seth, and Plum Sykes, the poets Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Donne, A. E. Housman, W. H. Auden, and Philip Larkin, and Poets Laureate Thomas Warton, Henry James Pye, Robert Southey, Robert Bridges, Cecil Day-Lewis, Sir John Betjeman, and Andrew Motion.

Scientists include Stephen Hawking, Richard Dawkins, and Nobel prize-winner Anthony James Leggett, and Tim Berners-Lee, co-inventor of the World Wide Web.

Actors Hugh Grant, Kate Beckinsale, Dudley Moore, Michael Palin, and Terry Jones were undergraduates at the University, as were Oscar winner Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck and filmmaker Ken Loach.

Notes

References

Gallery

University Church of St Mary the Virgin

Worcester College, Backs of medieval cottages

The Sheldonian Theatre, built by Sir Christopher Wren between 1664-1668, hosts the University’s Congregation, as well as concerts and degree ceremonies

Oxford University Museum of Natural History

Tom Quad, Christ Church in the snow.

Oxford University D.Phil. graduate in Full Academic Dress

Students entering the Sheldonian Theatre for their matriculation ceremony at the University of Oxford

The Queen’s College, Oxford, quad.

External links

All links retrieved April 16, 2020.

Credits

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This university town is very beautiful. The oldest univer­sity there is Oxford. The first of its colleges was founded in 1249. The university now has thirty-five colleges and about thirteen thousand students, many of them from other coun­tries. There were no women at Oxford until 1878, when the first women’s college Lady Margaret Hall opened.

Now most colleges are open to men and women. It is not easy to get a place at Oxford University to study for a degree. But outside the university there are many smaller private colleges which offer less difficult courses and where it is easy to enroll. Most students in these private schools take business, secretarial or English language courses.

Oxford is, of course, famous for its first-class education as well as its beautiful buildings. Some of the most intelligent men and women in the country live and work here. Oxford gives them what they need: a quiet atmosphere, friendly colleagues and the four-hundred-year-old library, which has about five million books. Oxford has same of the finest architecture in Britain. Some of their colleges, chapels and libraries are there, four and even five hundred years old, and are full of books and precious paintings. You can see there many lovely gardens, where the students can read and relax in the summer months.

Vocabulary:

to enroll – поступить

Questions:

1. What is the oldest university in oxford?

2. When did it open?

3. What is Oxford famous for?

4. How many colleges are there in university?

5. Where do students relax and read?

Part 3

TEXTS FOR HOME-READING

Text № 1

I. Words to be learnt:

make up – составлять

respectable behaviour – хорошее поведение

public life – общественная жизнь

to be surprised by – удивляться чему-либо

to complain – ругаться, жаловаться

to ban – запрещать

to make a noise – шуметь

II. Read the text and

a) write down a summarizing sentence for each paragraph;

b) prepare an oral summary of the text on the basis of the above task.

“UNWRITTEN RULES” OF GREAT BRITAIN

Good and bad manners make up the social rules of a coun­try. They are not always easy to learn because they are often not written down in books. For example, British women didn’t go into pubs at the beginning of this century because it was not considered respectable behaviour for a woman. Now both women and men drink freely in pubs and women are fully inte­grated into public life. Visitors to Britain are often surprised by the strange behaviour of the inhabitants. One of the worst mistakes is to get on a bus without waiting your turn in the queue. The other people in the queue will probably complain loudly! Queuing is a national habit and it is considered polite or good manners to wait for your turn.

In some countries it is considered bad manners to eat in the street, whereas in Britain it is common to see people ha­ving a snack whilst walking down the road, especially at lunch-time. Britons may be surprised to see young children in res­taurants in the evening because children are not usually taken out to restaurants late at night. And if they make a noise in public or in a restaurant it is considered very rude. In recent years children are playing a more active role and they are now accepted in many pubs and restaurants.

In recent years smoking has received a lot of bad publicity, and fewer British people now smoke. Many companies have banned smoking in their offices and canteens. Smoking is now banned on the London Underground, in cinemas and theaters and most buses. It’s becoming less and less acceptable to smoke in a public place. It is considered rude or bad manners to smoke in someone’s house without permission.

Social rules are an important part of our culture as they passed down through history. The British have an expression for following these “unwritten rules”: “When in Rome, do as the Romans do”.

Discussing questions:

1. What make the social rules of a country?

2. What was respectable behaviour for a woman in 20 th century?

3. What do you know about queuing?

4. What do you think about smoking?

5. What is the important part of our culture?

Exercises to the text:

I. Translate the words and words combinations from English into Russian. Build up your own sentences with them:

Social rules, integrate into, behaviour of inhabitants, worst mistake, national habit, in recent years, late at night, active role, without permission, to pass down.

II. Choose the Russian equivalents to the English word combinations:

III. Fill in the blanks with the words given below and build up general questions to the sentences:

2. One of the worst mistakes is to get on a bus without waiting your … in the queue.

3. Britons may be surprised to see young … in res­taurants in the evening.

4. In recent years … has received a lot of bad publicity, and fewer British people now smoke.

5. Social rules are an important part of our … as they passed down through history.

Children, culture, turn, woman, smoking

IV. Confirm or rebut the following statements:

1. Good and bad manners make up the political rules of a coun­try.

2. Now neither women nor men drink freely in pubs.

3. Many companies have banned smoking in their offices and canteens.

4. Children are now accepted in many pubs and restaurants.

5. It is considered rude or bad manners to smoke in someone’s house without permission.

V. Choose the right English equivalent to the words in brackets:

1. They are not always easy (учить) because they are often not written down in books.

2. Visitors to Britain are often surprised by the strange (поведение) of the inhabitants.

3. The other people in the (очередь) will probably complain loudly!

4. Smoking is now (запрещено) on the London Underground, in cinemas and theaters and most buses.

5. If children (шуметь) in public or in a restaurant it is considered very rude.

a) to kick up a row

c) to make a noise

VI. Translate the sentences from Russian into English:

1. Стояние в очереди – национальная привычка, и считается хорошей манерой вежливо дождаться своей очереди.

2. Британии в порядке вещей увидеть людей, перекусывающих по дороге, особенно во время ленча.

3. Становится все более и более неприемлемым курить в общественном месте.

4. Неписанные правила Великобритании нелегко выучить, потому что обычно о них не пишут в книгах.

5. Если ты в Риме, делай по-римски.

VII. Comment on the expression “When in Rome, do as the Romans do”.

Text № 2

I. Words to be learnt:

to be connected with – быть связанным с

Catholic country – католическая страна

to decide – решать

to divorce – развестись

to refuse – отказать

the Anglican church – англиканская церковь

to re-enter – снова войти, вернуться

to relax – расслабляться

II. Read the text and

a) state the main idea of the text;

b) prepare an oral summary of the text.

RELIGION IN GREAT BRITAIN

British religion used to be closely connected with kings, queens and politics. England was a Roman Catholic country until 1534. In 1525 King Henry VIII decided to divorce his queen, Catherine of Aragon, because he fell in love with Anne Boleyn. But when Henry asked the Pope for permission todi­vorce Catherine, he refused. Henry was so angry with the Pope that he ended all contact between England and Rome. He di­vorced Catherine of Aragon without the Pope’s permission and married Anne Boleyn.

In 1534 Parliament named Henry head of the Church of England. This was the beginning of the An­glican Church. The Anglican Church did not start as a Protes­tant Church and Henry certainly did not regard himself as a Protestant. However the Protestant movement in Europe was growing very strong at that time. When Henry quarreled with Rome and ordered the Bible to be translated into English, the way was open for Protestantism to spread in England.

Over the next years many people changed to this new religion. In 1553 Mary, Henry’s daughter by Catherine of Aragon, became Queen of England. The country re-entered the Roman Church, because she was a Roman Catholic. Protestants were glad when Mary died, because while she was Queen, many Protestants were burned for their beliefs. After Marry, Elizabeth became head of the Anglican Church and Roman Catholicism was ne­ver again the official religion in England.

The Church of England is still the established church in England nowadays. But in spite of the great variety of forms of worship, only a minority of people regularly go to church in Britain today. Most people see Sunday more аs a day for relaxing with the family or for doing jobs around the house and the garden.

Discussing questions:

1. Was England a Roman Catholic country until 1534?

2. Why did Henry decide to divorce the queen?

3. What was the beginning of the Anglican Church?

4. Were Protestants glad when Mary died?

5. What is the established church in England nowadays?

Exercises to the text:

I. Translate the words and words combinations from English into Russian. Build up your own sentences with them:

To fall in love, to ask for permission, to be angry with, Protestant Church, to regard, to quarrel with, over the next years, to be burnt for beliefs, official religion, in spite of, forms of worship, to do jobs around the house.

II. Choose the Russian equivalents to the English word combinations:

III. Find the missing words in the text:

1. British … used to be closely connected with kings, queens and politics.

2. Henry was so angry with the Pope that he ended all … between England and Rome.

3. The … Church did not start as a Protes­tant Church and Henry certainly did not regard himself as a ….

4. When Henry quarreled with … and ordered the … to be translated into English, the way was open for … to spread in England.

5. Protestants were glad when Mary died, because while she was …, many Protestants were burned for their ….

IV. Make up sentences:

V. Choose the right English equivalent to the words in brackets:

1. But when Henry asked the Pope for permission (разводиться) Catherine, he refused.

a) to grow in number

2. In 1534 Parliament named Henry (глава) of the Church of England.

3. However the Protestant movement in Europe was growing very strong at that time.

4. Over the next years many people changed to this new religion.

5. But in spite of the great variety of forms of worship, only a minority of people regularly go to church in Britain today.

VI. Translate the sentences from Russian into English:

1. Генрих развелся с женой без разрешения папы.

2. Протестантское движение становилось очень сильным в то время.

3. Когда Мария была королевой, много протестантов было сожжено на костре.

4. Церковь Англии всё ещё влиятельна в стране сегодня.

5. Британцев нельзя назвать религиозными людьми, так как, несмотря на большое разнообразие религиозных верований, только небольшое количество людей ходят в церковь.

Text № 3

I. Words to be learnt:

to honour – в честь

to mistake smb. for – принять кого-либо за

to ward away – отпугивать

to disguise – скрывать, переодеваться

to slice – нарезать ломтиками

spouse – супруг, супруга

Snap Apple Night – ночь поедания яблок

II. Read the text and

a) write down a summarizing sentence for each paragraph;

b) prepare an oral summary of the text on the basis of the above task.

ENGLISH HALLOWEEN CUSTOMS

The celebration of All Saints Day or just Halloween takes place on October 31st. The tradition of Halloween began in the fifth century B.C. This day the Irish Celts celebrated their New Year at that time, because they organized their year according to the agricultural calendar and marked the transition from one year to the next on October 31.

In the year 835 A. D. the Roman Catholic Church made November 1st a church holiday to honour all the saints. This day is called All Saint’s Day. Since that time many years have passed. Some traditions are gone, new traditions appeared.

The most known custom is the tradition of dressing. The tradition of dressing in costume for Halloween has both European and Celtic roots. Hundreds of years ago, winter was an uncertain and frightening time. Food supplies often ran low and, many people afraid of the dark, the short days of winter were full of constant worry. On Halloween, when it was be­lieved that ghosts came back to the earthly world, people thought that they would encounter ghosts if they left their homes. To avoid being recognized by these ghosts, people would wear masks when they left their homes after dark so that the ghosts would mistake them for fellow spirits. On Halloween, people placed bowls of food outside their homes to appease the ghosts and prevent them from attempting to enter their home.

Fire has always played an important part in Halloween. Fire was very important to the Celts as it was to all early people. In the old days people lit bonfires to ward away evil spirits and in some places they used to jump over the fire to bring good luck. Today, we light candles in pumpkin and then put them outside our homes to ward of evil spirits.

Another tradition is Apple Bobbing. It has the roman origins. The Roman festival for remembering the dead was also in October. During this time, the Romans remembered their goddess, Pomona. She was the goddess of the trees and fruits, and when the Romans came to Britain, they began to hold these two festivals on the same day as Samhain. Apples probably became associated with Halloween because of this festival. Some people believe that, if you slice an apple through the equator (to reveal the five-pointed star within) and then eat it by candlelight before a mirror, your future spouse will appear over your shoulder.

Trick or Treat was first known as Mischief Night. Halloween was a time for making mischief – many parts of England still recognize this date as Mischief Night – when children would knock on doors demanding a treat (Trick or Treat) and people would disguise themselves as witches or ghosts, in order to obtain food and money from nervous householders.

Halloween was sometimes called Nut crack Night or Snap Apple Night in England. Families would sit by the fire and tell stories while they ate apples and nuts.

Discussing questions:

1. When does Halloween take place?

2. When did the tradition of All Saints Day begin?

3. When did the Roman Catholic Church make November 1 st the church holiday of All Saints?

4. What are the roots of tradition of dressing in costumes for Halloween?

5. Why did people wear masks and dress in costumes for Halloween?

6. Why do people light fire in Halloween?

7. What Halloween tradition do you know?

8. What is Apple Bobbing?

9. What people do on snap apple Night?

Exercises to the text:

I. Translate the words and words combinations from English into Russian. Build up your own sentences with them:

All Saints Day, Irish Celts, earthly world, to take place, according to, agricultural calendar, Roman Catholic Church, tradition of dressing, frightening time, food supplies, fellow spirits, to play an important part, evil spirits, goddess of the trees and fruits, early people, to ward away, nervous householders.

II. Choose the Russian equivalents to the English word combinations:

III. Complete the beginning of the following sentences:

1. … because they organized their year according to the agricultural calendar and marked the transition from one year to the next on October 31.

2. … made November 1st a church holiday to honour all the saints.

3. … and, many people afraid of the dark, the short days of winter were full of constant worry.

4. … people would wear masks when they left their homes after dark so that the ghosts would mistake them for fellow spirits.

5. … to ward away evil spirits and in some places they used to jump over the fire to bring good luck.

IV. Ask questions to the underlined words:

1. The celebration of All Saints Day or just Halloween takes place on October 31st.

2. The most known custom is the tradition of dressing.

3. Hundreds of years ago, winter was an uncertain and frightening time.

4. On Halloween, people placed bowls of food outside their homes to appease the ghosts and prevent them from attempting to enter their home.

5. Fire has always played an important part in Halloween.

V. Confirm or rebut the following statements:

1. The tradition of Halloween began in the fifth century A.D.

2. The tradition of dressing in costume for Halloween has both American and Celtic roots.

3. Fire was very important to the Celts as it was to all early people.

4. Apple Bobbing has the roman origins.

5. Halloween was a time for making mischief – many parts of England still recognize this date as Mischief Night – when children would knock on doors demanding a treat (Trick or Treat) and grandparents would disguise themselves as witches or ghosts, in order to obtain food and money from nervous housewives.

VI. Choose the right English equivalent to the words in brackets:

1. Families would sit by the fire and (рассказывать истории) while they ate apples and nuts.

c) to tell stories

2. Apples probably (становиться) associated with Halloween because of this festival.

c) to plant oneself

3. During this time, the Romans remembered their (богиня), Pomona.

4. Since that time many years (проходить).

5. They organized their year according to the agricultural calendar and marked the transition from one year to the next on October 31.

VI. Translate the sentences from Russian into English:

1. Празднование Дня всех святых проходит 31 октября.

2. Самая известная традиция – традиция переодевания имеет как английские, так и кельтские корни.

3. Существовало поверье, что на Хэллоуин в земной мир возвращались духи, поэтому, когда люди выходили из дому, они надевали маски.

4. Хэллоуин был временем для шалостей – ночь шалостей, время, когда дети стучат в двери и требуют угощения.

5. Как празднуют Хэллоуин в нашей стране?

Literature

1. Барановская Т.В. Грамматика английского языка. Сборник упражнений / Т.В. Барановская. – Киев: ООО «ИП ЛОГОС-М», 2009. – 384 с.

2. Блох М.Я. Практикум по английскому языку: грамматика. Сборник упражнений: учебное пособие для вузов / М.Я. Блох, А.Я. Лебедева, В.С. Денисова. – М.: Астрель: АСТ, 2005. – 238 с.

3. Бонк Н.А. Учебник английского языка / Н.А. Бонк. – К.: Издательство Арий, 2007. – 640 с.

4. Волкова О.Ю. Усі розмовні теми. English / О.Ю. Волкова. – Х.: Торсінг плюс, 2011. – 608 с.

5. Голицынский Ю.Б. Грамматика: Сборник упражнений /Ю.Б. Голицынский – М.: КАРО, 2006. – 544 с.

6. Качалова К.Н. Практическая грамматика английского языка / К.Н. Качалова, Е.Е. Израилевич. – К.: Методика, 2008 г. – 368 с.

7. Кубарьков Г.Л. 1000. Сборник новых тем современного английского языка / Г.Л. Кубарьов. – Донецк: ООО ПКФ «БАО», 2008. – 1184 с.

8. Мердок-Штерн. Улучшите вашу грамматику / Мердок-Штерн. – М.: АСТ: АСТ МОСКВА, 2010. – 126 с.

9. Петрова С. Сборник упражнений / С. Петрова. – М.: ФСТ; Харьков: Торсинг, 2006. – 122 с.

Словари и справочники

1. Каменский С.И. Русско-английский словарь-справочник для инженеров / С.И. Каменский. – Киев, 2002. – 543 с.

2. Лысенко В.О. Современный англо-русский морской-технический словарь / В.О. Лысенко. – К.: ТОВ «ВП Логос», 2004. – 608 с.

3. Мюллер В.К. Новый англо-русский словарь / В.К. Мюллер. – М.: Рус. яз., 2002. – 880 с.

4. Мюллер В.К. Большой русско-английский словарь в новой редакции: 210 000 слов, словосочетаний, идиоматических выражений, пословиц и поговорок / В.К. Мюллер. – М.: Цитадель-трейд: РИПОЛ КЛАССИК, 2007. – 816 с.

5. Романов С.Д. Большой современный англо-русский русско-английский словарь-справочник: 80 000 слов и выражений современного английского языка / С.Д. Романов. – Донецк: ООО ПКФ «БАО», 2006. – 512 с.

6. Современный англо-русский политехнический словарь / сост. В.В. Бутник. – М.: Вече, 2006. – 512 с.

© Анна Александровна Заболотная

University of Oxford

The University of Oxford (informally Oxford University, or simply Oxford) is a university in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. [ 1 ] [ 6 ] Although the exact date of its foundation remains unclear, there is evidence of teaching there as far back as 1096. [ 1 ] The University grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. [ 1 ] In post-nominals, the University of Oxford was historically abbreviated as Oxon. (from the Latin Oxoniensis), although Oxf is nowadays used in official university publications.

After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge, where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient English universities have many common features and are often jointly referred to as Oxbridge. In addition to their cultural and practical associations, as a historic part of British society, they have a long history of rivalry with each other.

Most undergraduate teaching at Oxford is organised around weekly tutorials at self-governing colleges and halls, supported by lectures and laboratory classes organised by University faculties and departments. League tables consistently list Oxford as one of the UK’s best universities; the university regularly contends with Cambridge for first place in the tables. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Oxford consistently ranks in the world’s top 10. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] For more than a century, it has served as the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, which brings students from a number of countries to study at Oxford as postgraduates or for a second bachelor’s degree. [ 12 ]

Oxford is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities, the Coimbra Group, the G5, the League of European Research Universities, and the International Alliance of Research Universities. It is also a core member of the Europaeum and forms part of the ‘Golden Triangle’ of British universities. [ 13 ]

Contents

History

The University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in some form in 1096, but it is unclear at what point a university came into being. [ 1 ]

The expulsion of foreigners from the University of Paris in 1167 caused many English scholars to return from France and settle in Oxford. The historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188, and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the University was named a chancellor from at least 1201, and the masters were recognised as a universitas or corporation in 1231. The students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two “nations”, representing the North (including the Scots) and the South (including the Irish and the Welsh). In later centuries, geographical origins continued to influence many students’ affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. Members of many religious orders, including Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustinians, settled in Oxford in the mid-13th century, gained influence, and maintained houses for students. At about the same time, private benefactors established colleges to serve as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, and John Balliol, father of a future King of Scots: Balliol College bears his name. Another founder, Walter de Merton, a chancellor of England and afterwards Bishop of Rochester, devised a series of regulations for college life; Merton College thereby became the model for such establishments at Oxford, as well as at the University of Cambridge. Thereafter, an increasing number of students forsook living in halls and religious houses in favour of living in colleges.

The new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of the Greek language, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the Reformation and the breaking of ties with the Roman Catholic Church, Recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, settling especially at the University of Douai. The method of teaching at Oxford was transformed from the medieval Scholastic method to Renaissance education, although institutions associated with the university suffered losses of land and revenues. In 1636, Chancellor William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, codified the university’s statutes; these to a large extent remained its governing regulations until the mid-19th century. Laud was also responsible for the granting of a charter securing privileges for the University Press, and he made significant contributions to the Bodleian Library, the main library of the university.

The university was a centre of the Royalist party during the English Civil War (1642–1649), while the town favoured the opposing Parliamentarian cause. From the mid-18th century onwards, however, the University of Oxford took little part in political conflicts.

The mid nineteenth century saw the impact of the Oxford Movement (1833–1845), led among others by the future Cardinal Newman. The influence of the reformed model of German university reached Oxford via key scholars such as Edward Bouverie Pusey, Benjamin Jowett and Max Müller.

Administrative reforms during the 19th century included the replacement of oral examinations with written entrance tests, greater tolerance for religious dissent, and the establishment of four women’s colleges. Twentieth century Privy Council decisions (such as the abolition of compulsory daily worship, dissociation of the Regius professorship of Hebrew from clerical status, diversion of theological bequests to colleges to other purposes) loosened the link with traditional belief and practice. Although the University’s emphasis traditionally had been on classical knowledge, its curriculum expanded in the course of the 19th century to encompass scientific and medical studies.

The mid twentieth century saw many distinguished continental scholars, displaced by Nazism and Communism, relocating to Oxford.

The list of distinguished scholars at the University of Oxford is long and includes many who have made major contributions to British politics, the sciences, medicine, and literature. More than forty Nobel laureates and more than fifty world leaders have been affiliated with the University of Oxford. [ 14 ]

Women’s education

In 1974, five previously all-male colleges became co-educational. In 2008, St Hilda’s became the last of the women’s colleges to admit men also, so that all of the Oxford colleges are now co-educational. [ 23 ] By 1988, 40% of undergraduates at Oxford were female; [ 24 ] the ratio is now about 48:52 in men’s favour.

The detective novel Gaudy Night by Dorothy Sayers – herself one of the first women to get an academic degree at Oxford – takes place in a (fictional) women’s college at Oxford, and the issue of women’s education is central to its plot.

Organisation

As a collegiate university, Oxford’s structure can be confusing to those unfamiliar with it. The university is a federation: it comprises over forty self-governing colleges and halls, along with a central administration headed by the Vice-Chancellor. The academic departments are located centrally within this structure; they are not affiliated with any particular college. Departments provide facilities for teaching and research, determine the syllabi and guidelines for the teaching of students, perform research, and deliver lectures and seminars. Colleges arrange the tutorial teaching for their undergraduates. The members of an academic department are spread around many colleges; though certain colleges do have subject alignments (e.g. Nuffield College as a centre for the social sciences), these are exceptions, and most colleges will have a broad mix of academics and students from a diverse range of subjects. Facilities such as libraries are provided on all these levels: by the central university (the Bodleian), by the departments (individual departmental libraries, such as the English Faculty Library), and by colleges (each of which maintains a multi-discipline library for the use of its members).

Central governance

The university’s formal head is the Chancellor (currently Lord Patten of Barnes), though as with most British universities, the Chancellor is a titular figure, rather than someone involved with the day-to-day running of the university. The Chancellor is elected by the members of Convocation, a body comprising all graduates of the university, and holds office until death.

The Vice-Chancellor, currently Andrew Hamilton, is the «de facto» head of the University. Five Pro-Vice-Chancellors have specific responsibilities for Education; Research; Planning and Resources; Development and External Affairs; and Personnel and Equal Opportunities. The University Council is the executive policy-forming body, which consists of the Vice-Chancellor as well as heads of departments and other members elected by Congregation, in addition to observers from the Student Union. Congregation, the «parliament of the dons», comprises over 3,700 members of the University’s academic and administrative staff, and has ultimate responsibility for legislative matters: it discusses and pronounces on policies proposed by the University Council. Oxford and Cambridge (which is similarly structured) are unique for this democratic form of governance.

Two university proctors, who are elected annually on a rotating basis from two of the colleges, are the internal ombudsmen who make sure that the university and its members adhere to its statutes. This role incorporates student welfare and discipline, as well as oversight of the university’s proceedings. The collection of University Professors is called the Statutory Professors of the University of Oxford. They are particularly influential in the running of the graduate programmes within the University. Examples of Statutory Professors are the Chichele Professorships and the Drummond Professor of Political Economy. The various academic faculties, departments, and institutes are organised into four divisions, each with their own Head and elected board. They are the Humanities Division; the Social Sciences Division; the Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences Division; and the Medical Sciences Division.

The University of Oxford is a «public university» in the sense that it receives a large amount of public money from the government and from local authorities, but it is a «private university» in the sense that it is entirely self-governing and could choose to become entirely private by rejecting public funds.

Colleges

There are thirty-eight colleges of the University of Oxford and six Permanent Private Halls, each controlling its membership and with its own internal structure and activities. [ 25 ] All resident students, and most academic staff, must be members both of a college or hall, and of the university. The heads of Oxford colleges are known by various titles, according to the college, including warden, provost, principal, president, rector, master and dean. The colleges join together as the Conference of Colleges to discuss policy and to deal with the central University administration. Teaching members of the colleges (fellows and tutors) are collectively and familiarly known as dons, although the term is rarely used by the university itself. In addition to residential and dining facilities, the colleges provide social, cultural, and recreational activities for their members. Colleges have responsibility for admitting undergraduates and organising their tuition; for graduates, this responsibility falls upon the departments.

Teaching and degrees

Undergraduate teaching is centred on the tutorial, where 1–4 students spend an hour with an academic discussing their week’s work, usually an essay (humanities, most social sciences, some mathematical, physical, and life sciences) or problem sheet (most mathematical, physical, and life sciences, and some social sciences). Students usually have one or two tutorials a week, and can be taught by academics at any other college—not just their own—as expertise and personnel requires. These tutorials are complemented by lectures, classes and seminars, which are organised on a departmental basis. Graduate students undertaking taught degrees are usually instructed through classes and seminars, though there is more focus upon individual research.

The university itself is responsible for conducting examinations and conferring degrees. The passing of two sets of examinations is a prerequisite for a first degree. The first set of examinations, called either Honour Moderations («Mods» and «Honour Mods») or Preliminary Examinations («Prelims»), are usually held at the end of the first year (after two terms for those studying Law, Theology, Philosophy and Theology, Experimental Psychology or Psychology, Philosophy and Physiology or after five terms in the case of Classics). The second set of examinations, the Final Honour School («Finals»), is held at the end of the undergraduate course. Successful candidates receive first-, upper or lower second-, or third-class honours based on their performance in Finals. An upper second is the most usual result, and a first is generally prerequisite for graduate study. A «double first» reflects first class results in both Honour Mods. and Finals. Research degrees at the master’s and doctoral level are conferred in all subjects studied at graduate level at the university. As a matter of tradition, bachelor’s degree graduates are eligible, after seven years from matriculation and without additional study, to purchase for a nominal fee an upgrade of their bachelor’s degree to a «MA» or Master of Arts. All MAs were members of Convocation and until 1913 all resident members of Convocation were members of Congregation. [ 26 ] MAs, as members of Convocation, elected the Chancellor and Professor of Poetry, but recently Convocation has been widened to consist of all graduates. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]

Academic year

The academic year is divided into three terms, determined by Regulations. [ 29 ] Michaelmas Term lasts from October to December; Hilary Term from January to March; and Trinity Term from April to June.

Within these terms, Council determines for each year eight-week periods called Full Terms, during which undergraduate teaching takes place. These terms are shorter than those of many other British universities. [ 30 ] Undergraduates are also expected to prepare heavily in the three holidays (known as the Christmas, Easter and Long Vacations).

Internally at least, the dates in the term are often referred to by a number in reference to the start of each full term, thus the first week of any full term is called «1st week» and the last is «8th week». The numbering of the weeks continues up to the end of the term, and begins again with negative numbering from the beginning of the succeeding term, through «minus first week» and «noughth week», which precedes «1st week». Weeks begin on a Sunday. Undergraduates must be in residence from Thursday of 0th week.

Traditions

Academic dress is still commonly seen at Oxford; until the 1960s students wore it at all times. [ citation needed ] It is required for examinations and when visiting university officers. Other traditions and customs vary by college, one of the most common being the requirement to wear gowns for dinner in hall.

Finances

In 2005/06 the University had an income of £608m, and the colleges £237m (of which £41m is a flow-through from the University). For the University, key sources were HEFCE (£166m) and research grants (£213m). For the colleges, the largest single source was endowments and interest (£82m) and residential charges (£47m). While the University has the larger operating budget, the colleges have a far larger aggregate endowment, at around £2.7bn compared to the University’s £900m. [ 31 ] The Central University’s endowment, along with that of many of the colleges, is managed by the University’s wholly owned endowment management office, Oxford University Endowment Management, formed in 2007.

The University also launched a fundraising campaign in May 2008, called Oxford Thinking – The Campaign for the University of Oxford. [ 32 ] With a minimum goal of £1.25 billion, the Campaign is looking to support three areas: academic posts and programmes, student support, and buildings and infrastructure. [ 33 ]

Admission

Oxford has no upper or lower limit on the age of those admitted as undergraduates. Historically, it was common for boys to become members of the university between the ages of fourteen and nineteen. [ 34 ] Jeremy Bentham matriculated in 1761 at the age of thirteen, which was unusually young. [ 35 ] At the present time, the usual age range of those admitted to study for first degrees begins at about seventeen, although the majority are eighteen or nineteen. [ clarification needed ] Mature students, while not in great numbers in all colleges, are a higher proportion of those at Ruskin. Harris Manchester caters only to mature students above 21. In theory, much younger people can still be admitted to the university if they meet the entrance standard, and Ruth Lawrence matriculated at Oxford in 1983 at the age of twelve.

Procedure

Prospective students apply through the UCAS application system, in common with most British universities, but (along with applicants for Medicine, Dentistry and Cambridge applicants) must observe an earlier deadline of 15 October. [ 36 ] To allow a more personalised judgement of students, who might otherwise apply for both, undergraduate applicants are not permitted to apply to both Oxford and Cambridge in the same year. The only exceptions are applicants for Organ Scholarships [ 37 ] and those applying to read for a second undergraduate degree. [ 38 ] Students from all backgrounds are encouraged to apply, with «contextual data» (factors that may have influenced prior exam performance) taken into account during the admission procedure. The university believes that there are many potential students from less well off backgrounds who they can’t admit, simply because they don’t apply. [ 39 ]

Most applicants choose to apply to one of the individual colleges, which work with each other to ensure that the best students gain a place somewhere at the University whichever college they choose. [ 40 ] Shortlisting is based on achieved and predicted exam results; school references and, in some subjects, written admission tests or candidate-submitted written work. Approximately 60% of applicants are shortlisted, although this varies by subject. If a large number of shortlisted applicants for a subject choose one college, then students who named that college may be reallocated randomly to under-subscribed colleges for the subject. The colleges then invite shortlisted candidates for interview, where they are provided with food and accommodation for at least three days in December. Most applicants will be individually interviewed by academics at more than one college, however some are interviewed at more colleges than this. In 2007 the colleges, faculties and departments published a «common framework» outlining the principles and procedures they observe. [ 41 ]

Offers are sent out shortly before Christmas, with an offer usually being from a specific college. One in four successful candidates receive offers from a college that they did not apply to. Some courses may make «open offers» to some candidates, which do not carry an attachment to a particular college until A Level results day in August. [ 42 ] [ 43 ]

For graduate student admissions, many colleges express a preference for candidates who will be undertaking research in an area of interest of one of its fellows. St Hugh’s College, for example, states that it accepts graduate students in most subjects, principally those in the fields of interest of the Fellows of the college. [ 44 ] Perhaps as a consequence of this, it is not uncommon for a graduate student to be a member of his/her supervisor’s college, although this is not an official university requirement. For graduate students, admission is first handled by the relevant department, and then by a college.

Access

The University states that its admissions policies avoid bias against candidates of certain socio-economic or educational backgrounds. [ 45 ] However, the fairness of Oxford admissions has attracted public controversy through episodes such as the Laura Spence Affair in 2000. [ 46 ] Gaining places at Oxford and Cambridge remains a central focus for many private and selective state schools, and the lack of a social mix at the university representing society at large remains a point of controversy. [ 47 ] Veiled accusations of racism, however, have been refuted by comparison of A-level results with successful applications. [ 48 ] In 2007, the University refined its admissions procedure to take into account the academic performance of its applicants’ schools. [ 49 ]

Students who apply from state schools and colleges have a broadly comparable acceptance rate to those from independent schools (19% and 24% of applicants accepted respectively, 2010). [ 50 ] However, most pupils who are accepted from state schools come from ‘elite’ grammar and selective schools, rather than comprehensives. [ 50 ] More than half of applications come from the state sector, [ 50 ] and the University of Oxford funds many initiatives to attract applicants from this sector, including the UNIQ Summer Schools, Oxford Young Ambassadors, Target Schools, and the FE Access Initiative. [ 45 ] Regarding the UNIQ Summer School, of all the UNIQ students who went on to make applications in autumn 2010 to enter the University in 2011/12, 39 per cent ended up with places. The overall success rate for Oxford applicants overall is around 20 per cent.

Most colleges also run their own access schemes and initiatives.

In 2002, the University of Oxford commissioned a research project [ 51 ] under the auspices of Professor Anthony Heath. [ 52 ] Almost 2,000 applicants for admission participated in the project; about one third of them were admitted. [ 53 ] The project found that, if anything, admissions tutors treat applicants from state schools more favourably than applicants from private schools with the same attainment. [ 54 ] The research also suggested that this discounting was justified as private school students need higher grades at entry to do as well as their state school educated peers in final university examinations. [ 55 ] Finally, the study found that applicants to arts subjects had an advantage in admission when they displayed high levels of cultural capital. [ 56 ]

Mature and part-time students are supported by the Oxford University Department for Continuing Education. Most part-time students will belong to Kellogg College, although a small number of other colleges also accept admissions.

Scholarships and financial support

There are many opportunities for students at Oxford to receive financial help during their studies. The Oxford Opportunity Bursaries, introduced in 2006, are university-wide means-based bursaries available to any British undergraduate. With a total possible grant of £10,235 over a 3-year degree, it is the most generous bursary scheme offered by any British university. [ 57 ] In addition, individual colleges also offer bursaries and funds to help their students. For graduate study, there are many scholarships attached to the University, available to students from all sorts of backgrounds, from Rhodes Scholarships to the new Weidenfeld Scholarships. [ 58 ]

Students successful in early examinations are rewarded by their colleges with scholarships and exhibitions, normally the result of a long-standing endowment, although when tuition fees were first abolished, the amounts of money available became purely nominal. Scholars, and exhibitioners in some colleges, are entitled to wear a more voluminous undergraduate gown; «commoners» (originally those who had to pay for their «commons», or food and lodging) being restricted to a short, sleeveless garment. The term «scholar» in relation to Oxbridge, therefore, had a specific meaning as well as the more general meaning of someone of outstanding academic ability. In previous times, there were «noblemen commoners» and «gentlemen commoners», but these ranks were abolished in the 19th century. «Closed» scholarships, available only to candidates who fitted specific conditions such as coming from specific schools, exist now only in name.

From the inception of the Church of England until 1866 membership of the church was a requirement to receive the BA degree from Oxford, and «dissenters» were only permitted to receive the MA in 1871. Knowledge of Ancient Greek was required until 1920, and Latin until 1960. Women were admitted to degrees in 1920.

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