What the main categories of public law

Прочитайте текст и передайте его содержание на английском языке

Система права включает в себя отрасли публичного и частного права. Это деление сложилось в юридической науке и практике давно – оно было предложено еще римскими юристами. Сейчас оно в той или иной форме существует во всех развитых правовых системах. Суть указанного разделения состоит в том, что в любом праве есть нормы, призванные обеспечивать прежде всего общезначимые (публичные) интересы, т.е. интересы общества, государства в целом (конституционное право, уголовное, процессуальное, административное, финансовое, военное), и нормы, защищающие интересы частных лиц (гражданское право, трудовое, семейное, торговое, предпринимательское и т.д.).

В системе права выделяют также отрасли материального и процессуального права. Отрасли материального права оказывают непосредственное воздействие на общественные отношения. Большинство отраслей относится к категории материального права (уголовное, государственное, предпринимательское, семейное и др.). Объектом материального права выступают имущественные, трудовые, семейные и иные материальные отношения. Процессуальное право регулирует порядок, процедуру осуществления прав и обязанностей сторон. Оно регулирует отношения, возникающие в таких процессах как расследования преступлений, рассмотрения и разрешения уголовных, гражданских, арбитражных дел. В настоящее время выделяют уголовно-процессуальное, гражданское процессуальное право, арбитражный процесс. Процессуальные нормы существуют практически в любой отрасли, но не все из них выделяются в самостоятельную отрасль. Обе отрасли тесно связаны друг с другом, особенно когда дело касается их практического применения.

11. Используя план, приведенный ниже, расскажите о системе права и основных классификациях права на английском языке.

· What a system of law is

· The common divisions of a system of law

· The difference between public and private law

· The main categories of public law

· The main categories of private law

· The difference between substantive and procedural law

Examples:

I’m glad to work with these people. – Я рад, что работаю с этими людьми (постоянное действие)

I’m glad to be working on this case. – Я рад, что работаю над этим делом (временное действие).

We are glad to have caught the criminals. – Мы рады, что поймали преступников (завершенное действие).

I’m happy to have been working for this company for many years. – Я счастлив, что работаю в этой компании уже много лет (незавершенное действие).

He wants to be given more interesting cases. –Он хочет, чтобы ему давали более интересные дела (пассивная конструкция, обозначающая постоянное действие)

He is happy to have been given a more interesting case. – Он счастлив, что ему дали более интересное дело (пассивная конструкция, обозначающая завершенное действие).

Text A. CIVIL AND PUBLIC LAW

1. One important distinction made in English – speaking countries is between private, or civil, law and public law. Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and public law concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state and another.

The main categories of English civil law are:

Contracts: binding agreements between people (or companies);

Torts: committed by one individual against another individual’s person, property or reputation;

Trusts: whereby a person administers property for another person’s benefit rather than his own Land Law;

Probate: for dealing with property after the owner’s death;

The main categories of public law are:

Crimes: which, even when committed against an individual are considered to harm the well-being of society in general;

Constitutional Law: regulation of how the law itself operates and of the relation between private citizen and government;

International Law: of relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another.

In codified systems there are codes that correspond to these categories, for example, France’s Code Civil and Code Penal. Justinian’s Roman codes covered such areas of law as contracts, property, inheritance, torts, the family, unjust enrichment, the law of persons, and legal remedies, but said little about criminal law. Consequently, most Continental criminal codes are entirely modern inventions.

2. Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and he may sometimes have to pay the legal costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.

3. The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil one since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also being sent to prison (or, in some countries, executed). In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal «beyond reasonable doubt»; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case «on the balance of probabilities». Thus, in a criminal case a crime cannot be proven if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have a reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a civil case, the court will weigh all the evidence and decide what is most probable.

4. Criminal and civil procedure are different. Although some systems, including the English, allow a private citizen to bring a criminal prosecution against another citizen, criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started by individuals.

5. In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant. A criminal case against a person called Ms. Sanchez would be described as «The People vs. (= versus, or against) Sanchez» in the United States and «R. (Regina, that is, the Queen) vs. Sanchez» in England. But a civil action between Ms. Sanchez and a Mr. Smith would be «Sanchez vs. Smith» if it was started by Sanchez, and «Smith vs. Sanchez» if it was started by Mr. Smith.

6. Evidence from a criminal trial is not necessarily admissable as evidence in a civil action about the same matter. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the driver who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action. In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial.

7. Once the plaintiff has shown that the defendant is liable, the main argument in a civil court is about the amount of money, or damages, which the defendant should pay to the plaintiff.

8. Nevertheless there are many points of contact between criminal and civil law. In most countries if the loser of a civil case refuses to comply with the order made against him – for example, to pay money to the winner of the action – the procedures for forcing him to comply may result in a criminal prosecution. Disobeying any court may constitute criminal conduct, and the disobedient loser of a civil action may find he or she not only has to pay the damages originally ordered by the court, but a criminal penalty as well.

9. Although the guilty defendant in a criminal case will not automatically be found liable in a civil action about the same matter, his chances of avoiding civil liability are not good. This is because the standard of proof in the civil cases is lower than it was in the criminal case. The plaintiff will therefore make sure any information about a relevant criminal case is passed to the civil court.

10. It is also possible in English law to bring a civil action against the police. Sometimes this is done by someone who was mistreated when questioned by the police about a criminal case.

2. Выпишите из текста английские эквиваленты следующих слов и выражений: обязательное соглашение; норма доказательств; правонарушение; гражданское правонарушение; начать судебное расследование; обвинение (сторона судебного процесса); подлежать преследованию; истец; ответчик; доказать виновность; признать виновным; подчиняться предписанию; возмещение убытков; уголовно наказуемое поведение.

3. Найдите и выпишите из текста 3 предложения, содержащие инфинитив. Определите формы и функции инфинитива. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

4. Найдите и выпишите из текста 3 предложения, содержащие причастие. Определите формы и функции причастий. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

5. Найдите и выпишите из текста 3 предложения, содержащие герундий. Определите формы и функции герундия. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

6. Переведите письменно абзацы 1, 2.

7. Напишите аннотацию к тексту, используя следующие клишированные словосочетания (3-5 предложений): the precis deals with …; the abstract is devoted to …; the work is concerned with … (bears on …, gives explanation of …, is intended to demonstrate certain phenomena, is designed to provide some information about …); the subject of the paper under review is …; the author touches upon the problem of …; … is (are) described; special attention is given (paid) to …; the chief aim (main purpose) of the work is …; the main result of the work is … (that it has given a clue to …).

TEXT B. Public and Private (Civil) Law Categories

Public Law categories

A) Constitutional Law

Constitutional Law controls the method of government and any disputes which arise over such matters as who is entitled to vote in an election, or who is allowed to become a Member of Parliament, or whether an election was carried out by the correct procedure.

B) Administrative Law

Administrative Law controls how Ministers of State or other public bodies such as local councils operate. An important part of this is the right to judicial review of certain decisions.

C) Criminal Law

Criminal Law sets out the types of behaviour which are forbidden at risk of punishment. A person committed a crime is said to have offended against the State, and so the State has the right to prosecute him (her). An offender may be imprisoned, fined, placed under supervision, or punished some other way.

Private (Civil) Law Categories.

Private (Civil) Law concerns disputes among the citizens within a country. The main categories of English Private (Civil) Law are the following:

1) contracts – binding agreements between people (or companies),

2) torts – wrongs committed by one individual against another individual’s

person, property, or reputation,

3) probate – arrangements of dealing with property after the owner’s death,

4) trusts – arrangements whereby a person administers property for another

person’s benefit, rather then his own Land Law.

E X E R C I S E S.

Ex. 1. Прочитайтемеждународныеслова, определитеихзначение. Обратитевниманиенаударения

`public repu`tation regu`lation `private `natural

`benefit pro`bate `dispute `category indi`vidual

Ex. 2. Найдитесоответствияанглийскихирусскихвыражений

a set of rules налагать ответственность

to control relations and behaviour делить на категории

to maintain order набор правил и регламентаций to resolve disputes использовать в пределах страны to impose responsibility контролировать отношения и поведение to apply within a country поддерживать порядок to divide into categories разрешать споры

Ex. 3. Определитеправильноезавершениепредложения

1. The Constitutional Law controls …

a) the method of governing, b) the method of punishing, c) the method of disputing

2. The Administrative Law controls ……..

a) the operating of militia, b) the operating of Ministers, c) the operating of judicial system

3. The Criminal Law sets out …..

a) the principles of the conduct in a society, b) the behaviour forbidden by a law, c) the system of militia bodies

4. The Civil Law concerns …. ……

a) relations between citizens and society, b) disputes among citizens within a country,

c) relations between the President and the population 5. TH main categories of English Civil Law are ……

a) Matrimonial Law and Ecological Law, b) Contract Law and Tort Law, c) Criminal Law and Labour Law

Ex. 4. Отметьтезвездочкой (*) правильныеутверждения

1. The Constitutional Law controls any disputes arisen over the matters of the age limit for voting or for being elected in the Parliament (.). 2. An important part of the Criminal Law is the right to judicial review of certain decisions. 3. The Criminal Law sets out the types of behaviour forbidden in the society (.). 4. There is the Private Law

containing such categories as the Criminal Law, the Civil Law, the Matrimonial Law etc. (.). 5. The contracts are binding agreements between people (or companies) (.). 6. The Family Law is one of the International Law categories (.). 7. An offender may be imprisoned, fined, placed under supervision, or punished some other way (.). 8. A tort is a wrongs committed by the group for endangering state security. 9. The environment is protected by the Ecological Law (.). 10. International and municipal laws enclose all spheres of human society’s life.

Ex. 5. Ответьтенавопросы

1. What are the main categories of Law? 2. What does the International Law deal with? 3. What is the basis of the International Law? 4. What categories is the National Law subdivided into? 5. What does the Criminal Law deal with? 6. Which branches of law regulate the social sector of society’s life? 7. What is a tort? 8. What laws regulate the economic process in a society? 9. What are the business agreements legally arranged by?

10. What category of Law does the Family Law belong to?

Ex. 6. Дайтекраткоеизложениесодержаниятекста

CIVIL AND PUBLIC LAW

law concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state
and another. The main categories of English civil laws are:

Contracts: binding agreements between people (or companies):

Torts: wrongs committed by one individual against another individual’s

person, property or reputation;
Trusts: arrangements whereby a person administers property for another

person’s benefit rather than his own Land Law;
Probate: arrangements for dealing with property after the owner’s death:

The-main categories of public law are:

Crimes: wrongs which, even when commuted against an individual, can harm

the well-being of society in general;
Constitutional Law : regulation of how the law itself operates and of the relation between private citizen and government;

International Law: regulation of relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another

In codified systems there are codes that correspond to these categories.
Roman codes covered contracts, property, inheritance, torts, etc. but said
nothing about criminal law. So most criminal codes are quite modern invention.

Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal
procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant
to pay a line as punishment for his с rime and he may sometimes have to pay
the costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his claims
for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.

The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil
our since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also can be sent
to prison. In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal
“ beyond reasonable doubt». Thus, in a civil case a crime cannot be proven
if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have
a reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a civil
case, the court will consider all the evidence and decide what is most
probable.

Criminal and civil procedure are different. Criminal actions are nearly
always started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started
by individuals.

In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in
most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil
action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the
defendant.

Ex. 4. Исправьте неправильные утверждения, используя приводимые
ниже выражения.

it is wrong
it is false
it is not right это неправильно
it is not true

on the contrary наоборот

it contradicts reality это противоречит действительности
d)

in my opinion по моему мнению
to my mind
my understanding is that

1. Both damages and fines are sums of money.

2. Both damages and fines may benefit the victim of the accident.

3. Damages are part of the civil law.

4. Public law includes Contract Law, Constitutional law and
Family law.

5. In a civil case a crime is proven even if people’s judgment is based
on intuition or feeling.

Ex. 5. Составьте возможные сочетания и переведите их на русский

to commit
to bring
to lose
to doubt
to prove
to win
to require

Ex. 6. Закончите предложения.

1. Constitutional law regulates…

2. International law regulates…

3. Torts deal with…

4. Probate deals with…

Ex 7. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на слово

1. Не was arrested since he was found guilty of murdering a man.
2. This case should be a civil action since it is a wrong committed

against property.
3. The punishment was clear since the trial began.

4. He has been afraid of the police since childhood.
5. Since he refused to pay money for the damages, the case was

brought to court.

Ex. 8.Переведитена русский язык, обращая внимание на слова-за-
менители.

1. I’ve got only one important question to solve.

2. One should always remember the difference between civil and
criminal law.

3. The standards of proof are lower in a civil action than in a criminal
one.

4. Since the political regime of the country has changed, the law

codes are to be changed to a new one.
5. The climate of the Crimea is better than that of the Caucasus.
6. The International law also regulates relations between private citizens

of one country and those of another.

Ex. 9. Переведите письменно со словарём

Civil Justice

The civil law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland covers business
related to the family, property, contracts and torts (non-contractual wrongful
acts suffered by one person at the hands of another). It also includes
constitutional, administrative, industrial and other laws.

Civil proceedings, as a private matter, can usually be abandoned or ended
by settlement between the parties at any time. Actions brought to court are
usually tried without a jury. Higher courts deal with more complicated civil
cases. Most judgments are for sums of money, and the costs of an action are generally paid by the party losing it.

Ex. 10. Прочитайте текст без словаря и скажите по-английски

1) какие нарушения совершила Аннет,

2) виды этих нарушений.

3) возможные нарушения за них.

Annette Forbes is head of the marketing division (отдел) of the computer
company. She went to the University, has a good job and a good family
She has always been a law-abiding citizen.

One day she arrived a little late for work, and had to park her car in a
non-parking zone. Later she look a client out for a business lunch and
drank jin and tonic and half a bottle of wine to celebrate (отметить) an
important new contract. When driving back to work she was stopped by
a policeman who tested her for alcohol. He told her she would be
disqualified from driving for a year. Annette who needed a car for her
work asked him to forget (забыть) about it in return (взамен) for newest
home computer.

Ex. 11. Заполните предлагаемую схему и, пользуясь ею, перескажите
текст.

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Public law

Public law is the branch of law whose main purpose is to regulate and supervise the different links established between individuals and private institutions that are related to public power, as long as these sectors are protected by public powers of a legitimate nature and following the statutes of the law. It is a group of norms whose function is to regulate all those activities carried out by the State with respect to its sovereign functions and their relations with the inhabitants. In it, it is the State that has privilege over other persons or institutions.

Related topics

What is public law?

Public law is the legal order that allows to have adequate relations of subordination, cooperation and ordering between the State and the people who inhabit a determined place by regulating the exercise of the sovereign functions of public power.

About public law

Public law consists of drawing up a set of general conditions based on freedom and security, which allows the inhabitants or groups of a society to acquire a particular set of interests through the State. It regulates the correct exercise of the powers that make up the State, always seeking different collective or common interests.

Characteristics

Its main characteristics are the following:

Legal nature

Public law and its legal nature can be defined as a set of rules that regulate legally the organization and proper functioning of the state, as well as the relations between citizens and state. It is the legal norms of the state’ s own organization and all its functions.

Backgrounds

The law began in Rome, and was based on the phrase “Publicum ius est quod ad statum rei romanae spectat“, which means that public law is the one that deals with Roman government, and was divided into three different types:

Public law basically referred to government, organization and State functions, and relations with individuals and other States. The rules that formed part of this right could not be modified by agreement between individuals. The organs belonging to the state were in charge to express people’ will, at that time, Roman people.

History

Public law originated in Rome and its development has been classified into different periods ranging from the founding of Roman Empire to the establishment of Justinian Empire. In each of these periods, we can find particular characteristics that distinguish them. There were four phases in public law history:

Branches

The branches of public law are:

Sources or principles of public law

These sources depend on each State, however, there are sources that are applicable everywhere to maintain the legal order and these are:

Its purpose is to maintain order and regulate the different links between individuals and the State, by regulating the relationships of subordination and ordering that occur between the States and individuals in a society.

Importance of public law

Public law is important because of the unequal relationship between the government and people. The government is the only body that can make decisions about people’s rights and people must act within the law. Thanks to public law, a person can apply for judicial review if he or she is not satisfied with the decision of an authorized body. It is important because it defends people when there are unbalanced relationships between the individual and the state, or the bodies that represent it.

Examples

Some examples that observed daily in our society involving public law are: